CSS3 module: text

Abstract

This document presents a set of CSS text formatting properties. In addition to what was already existing in CSS 2 [CSS2], many new properties are addressing basic requirements in international context (mostly East Asian and Bidirectional). However, their usage is not limited to those instances.

Status of This Document

This document is a working draft of the CSS working group which is part of the Style activity. It contains a proposal for features to be included in CSS level 3.

This document has been produced as a combined effort of the W3C Internationalization Activity, and the Style Activity. It also includes extensive contribution made by members of the XSL Working Group (members only). Finally, some of the proposal surfaced first in the Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1.0 Specification [SVG1.0]. The text has been duplicated in this document to reflect which properties and specification should be eventually referenced in CSS itself.

Feedback is very much welcome. Comments can be sent directly to the editor, but the mailing list www-style@w3.org (see instructions) is also open and is preferred for discussion of this and other drafts in the Style area.

This working draft may be updated, replaced or rendered obsolete by other W3C documents at any time. It is inappropriate to use W3C Working Drafts as reference material or to cite them as other than "work in progress". Its publication does not imply endorsement by the W3C membership or the CSS Working Group (members only).

To find the latest version of this working draft, please follow the "Latest version" link above, or visit the list of W3C Technical Reports.

Contents

• 1. Dependencies on other modules
• 2. Introduction
• 3. Text layout
  • 3.1. Text layout introduction
  • 3.2. Setting the inline and block progressions: the 'writing-mode' and 'direction' properties
  • 3.3. Glyph orientation within a text run: the 'glyph-orientation-vertical' and 'glyph-orientation-horizontal' properties
  • 3.4. Embedding and override: the 'unicode-bidi' property
  • 3.5. Script character classification: the 'script' property
• 4. Text alignment and justification
  • 4.1. Text alignment: the 'text-align' property
  • 4.2. Justification: the 'text-justify' property
  • 4.3. Last line alignment: the 'text-align-last' property'
  • 4.4. Minimum and maximum font size: the 'min-font-size' and 'max-font-size' property
  • 4.5. Additional compression: The 'text-justify-trim' property
  • 4.6. Kashida effect: the 'text-kashida-space' property'
• 5. Indentation: the 'text-indent' property
• 6. Line breaking
  • 6.1. Types of line breaking
  • 6.2. Line breaking: the 'line-break' property
  • 6.3. Word breaking: the 'word-break-CJK', 'word-break-inside' properties and the shorthand 'word-break' property
• 7. Text Wrapping, White-space Control and Text Overflow
  • 7.1. Text wrapping: the 'wrap-option' property
  • 7.2. White-space control: the 'linefeed-treatment', 'white-space-treatment', 'all-space-treatment' properties and the 'white-space' shorthand property
  • 7.3. Text overflow: the 'text-overflow-mode', 'text-overflow-ellipsis' properties and the shorthand 'text-overflow' property
• 8. Text spacing
  • 8.1. Letter spacing: the 'letter-spacing' property
  • 8.2. Word spacing: the 'word-spacing' property
  • 8.3. Punctuation trimming: the 'punctuation-trim' property
  • 8.4. Adding space: the 'text-autospace' property
  • 8.5. Text kerning: the 'kerning-mode' and 'kerning-pair-threshold' property
• 9. Text decoration
  • 9.1. Introduction
  • 9.2. Underline control: the 'text-underline-style', 'text-underline-color', 'text-underline-mode', 'text-underline-position' properties and the shorthand 'text-underline' property
  • 9.3. Line-through control: the 'text-line-through-style', 'text-line-through-color', 'text-line-through-mode', properties and the shorthand 'text-line-through' property
  • 9.4. Overline control: the 'text-overline-style', 'text-overline-color', 'text-overline-mode' properties and the shorthand 'text-overline' property
  • 9.5. Underlining, overlining, lining through, and blinking: the 'text-decoration' shorthand property
  • 9.6. Text shadows: the 'text-shadow' property
• 10. Document grid
  • 10.1. What is document grid?
  • 10.2. Line grid mode: the 'line-grid-mode' property
  • 10.3. Line grid progression: the 'line-grid-progression' property
  • 10.4. line-grid: the shorthand 'line-grid' property
• 11. Miscellaneous text formatting
  • 11.1. Capitalization: the 'text-transform' property
  • 11.2. Hanging punctuation: the 'hanging-punctuation' property
  • 11.3. Combining text: the 'text-combine' property'
• 12. Properties index
• 13. Profiles
• 14. Glossary
• Appendix A: Vertical Layout Effect on CSS Properties
• Acknowledgments
• References
  • Normative references
  • Other references
• Changes from Previous Working Draft

1. Dependencies on other modules

This CSS3 module depends on the following other CSS3 modules:

• Fonts
• Line
• Syntax and grammar
• Values and unit

It has non-normative (informative) references to the following other CSS3 modules:

• Multi-column layout
• Ruby

2. Introduction

In both CSS1 and CSS2, text formatting has been limited to simple effects like for example: text decoration, text alignment and character spacing. However, International typography contains types of formatting that could not be achieved without using special workarounds or graphics.

Along with already existing text related properties, this document presents a number of new CSS properties to represent such formatting. For example, the features this proposal covers include two of the most important features for East Asian typography: vertical text and layout grid.

There is a number of illustrations in this document for which the following legend is used:

- wide-cell glyph (e.g. Han) which is the n-th character in the text run,
- narrow-cell glyph (e.g. Roman) which is the n-th glyph in the text run,
- connected glyph (e.g. Arabic) which is the n-th glyph in the text run.

Many typographical properties in East Asian typography depends on the fact that a character is typically rendered as either a wide or narrow character. All characters described by the Unicode Standard [UNICODE] can be categorized by a width property. This is covered by the Unicode Standard Annex [UAX-11].

The orientation which the above symbols assume in the diagrams corresponds to the orientation that the glyphs they represent are intended to assume when rendered in the UA (user agent). Spacing between these characters in the diagrams is usually symbolic, unless intentionally changed to make a point.

Furthermore, all properties, in addition to the noted values, take 'initial' and 'inherit'. These values are not repeated in each of the property value enumeration.

This module uses extensively the 'before', 'after', 'start' and 'end' notation to specify the four edges of a box relative to its text advance direction, independently of its absolute positioning in terms of 'top', 'bottom', 'left' and 'right' (corresponding respectively to the 'before', 'after', 'start' and 'end' positions in a typical Western text layout). This notation is also used extensively in [XSL1.0] for the same purpose.

Finally, in this document, requirements are expressed using the key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL" and "SHALL NOT". Recommendations are expressed using the key words "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT" and "RECOMMENDED". "MAY" and "OPTIONAL" are used to indicate optional features or behavior. These keywords are used in accordance with [RFC2119]. For legibility these keywords are used in lowercase form.

3. Text layout

3.1. Text layout introduction

This section describes the text layout features supported by CSS, which includes support for various international writing directions, such as left-to-right (e.g., Roman scripts), right-to-left (e.g., Hebrew or Arabic), bidirectional (e.g., mixing Roman with Arabic) and vertical (e.g., Asian scripts).

The 'writing-mode' property determines an inline progression and a block (line to line) progression. For example, Roman scripts are typically written left to right and top to bottom. The glyph orientation determines the orientation of the rendered visual shape of characters relative to the inline progression.

Within a line, the adjustment to the current text position is based on the current glyph orientation relative to the inline progression, the metrics of the glyph just rendered, kerning tables in the font and the current values of various attributes and properties, such as the spacing properties.

Bi-directionality introduces another level of complexity in text layout, as in many combinations of 'writing-mode' and glyph orientation values the proper directionality of text will be determined by an algorithm. The Unicode standard ([UNICODE], section 3.12) defines such an algorithm consisting of an implicit part based on character properties, as well as explicit controls for embeddings and overrides. It is also possible to override the inherent directionality of the content characters by using of combination of the 'writing-mode' and 'unicode-bidi' properties.

CSS3 relies on this algorithm to achieve proper text bidirectional rendering. However reordering of characters only occurs for specific values of the glyph orientation properties. See their description for the exact conditions.

CSS2 specified the 'direction' property which is a subset of the 'writing-mode' property as it only determines an inline progression. The 'direction' property may still be used when no block progression change is desired.

The HTML 4.01 specification ([HTML401], section 8.2) defines bi-directionality behavior for HTML elements. Conforming HTML user agents may therefore ignore the 'direction' and 'unicode-bidi' properties in author and user style sheets. The style sheet rules that would achieve the bidi behavior specified in HTML 4.01 are given in the sample style sheet. The HTML 4.01 specification also contains more information on bidirectionality issues. Note that HTML 4.01 does not cover the more general case described by the 'writing-mode' property.

3.2. Setting the inline and block progressions: the 'writing-mode' and 'direction' properties

The 'writing-mode' property specifies whether the inline progression shall be left-to-right, right-to-left, or top-to-bottom. (Note that even when the inline progression is left-to-right or right-to-left, some or all of the content within a given element might advance in the opposite direction because of the Unicode [UNICODE] bidirectional algorithm or because of explicit text advance overrides due to this property or 'direction' and 'unicode-bidi'. This property also changes the 'direction' property for the element. For more on bidirectional text, see the section about Embedding and override.

lr-tb | lr

Sets the inline progression to left-to-right, and the block progression to top-to-bottom as is common in most Roman-based documents. For most characters, the current text position is advanced from left to right after each glyph is rendered. The 'direction' property is set to 'ltr'.

rl-tb | rl

Sets the inline progression to right-to-left, and the block progression to top-to-bottom as is common in Arabic or Hebrew scripts. The direction property is set to 'rtl'.

tb-rl | tb

Sets the inline progression to top-to-bottom, and the block progression to right-to-left as is common in Asian scripts. The baseline alignment may be different in this context. Typically, the dominant baseline runs through the center of the upright glyphs. The direction property is set to 'ltr'.

tb-lr

Sets the inline progression to top-to-bottom, and the block progression to left-to-right as is common in Mongolian script. This type of vertical layout also occurs in Latin based documents, particularly in table column or row labels. The baseline alignment may be different in this context. Typically, the dominant baseline runs through the center of the upright glyphs. The direction property is set to 'ltr'.

bt-rl

Sets the inline progression to bottom-to-top, and the block progression to right-to-left. This value only exists to cover the case of the direction property value 'rtl' applied to an element where the current writing-mode property value is 'tb-rl' or 'tb'. The direction property is set to 'rtl'.

bt-lr

Sets the inline progression to bottom-to-top, and the block progression to left-to-right. This value only exists to cover the case of the direction property value 'rtl' applied to an element where the current writing-mode property value is 'tb-lr'. The direction property is set to 'rtl'.

The combination of inline progression and block progression set by the writing-mode property is also referred as a flow orientation. In such contexts, the values: lr-tb, lr, rl-tb and rl correspond to horizontal flow orientations, and the others (tb-rl, tb, tb-lr, bt-rl, bt-lr) correspond to vertical flow orientations.

For horizontal flow orientations, the top and bottom margins can be collapsed. For vertical flow orientations, the left and right margin can be collapsed. See Collapsing margins in the CSS3 Box module [forthcoming] for the details of collapsing margins.

This property also specifies the direction of table column layout, the direction of the overflow when determined by the inline progression (such as the 'start' and 'end' value of the 'text-align' property), the initial alignment of text and the position of an incomplete last line in a block in case of 'text-align: justify'.

For the 'writing-mode' property to have any effect on inline-level elements, one or both of the following conditions must be met:

• the new inline progression is perpendicular to the parent's own inline progression or
• the glyph orientation of the characters within the element is 'auto' or 90/-90 degree in vertical layout or 0/180 degree in horizontal layout and the 'unicode-bidi' property's value is 'embed' or 'bidi-override'.

An inline-level element that has a different writing-mode value than its parent becomes an inline-block element.

Here is a diagram of a horizontal flow (writing-mode: lr-tb):

Here is a diagram for a vertical flow used in East Asia (writing-mode: tb-rl) :

And finally, here is a diagram for another flow used for Uyghur and Mongolian (writing-mode: tb-lr):

In East Asian documents, it is often preferred to display certain Latin-based strings, such as numerals in a year, always in a horizontal layout flow regardless of the flow mode of the line of text these strings appear in, as in:

This effect is known as "Tate chu yoko". In order to achieve it in an XHTML context, the Latin string should be enclosed within a span element with an horizontal flow orientation, as in:

.hinv {writing-mode: lr-tb; display: inline-block;}
<span class="hinv">1996</span>

This is an application of changing the flow of an inline element as described earlier. Line breaking is normally disabled for such runs of text. This can be accomplished using the CSS 'white-space: nowrap' property setting.

Values for this property have the following meanings:

ltr

Left-to-right direction.

rtl

Right-to-left direction.

This property specifies the inline progression and the direction of embeddings and overrides (see 'unicode-bidi') for the Unicode bidirectional algorithm. The block progression is not affected by this property. The values 'ltr' and 'rtl' have to be interpreted 'relatively' to the line direction. In addition, it specifies the direction of table column layout, the direction of the overflow when determined by the inline progression (such as the 'start' and 'end' value of the 'text-align' property), the initial alignment of text and the position of an incomplete last line in a block in case of 'text-align: justify'. For the 'direction' property to have any effect on inline-level elements, the 'unicode-bidi' property's value must be 'embed' or 'bidi-override' and the glyph orientation of the characters within the element must be 'auto' or 90/-90 degree in vertical layout or 0/180 degree in horizontal layout.

Note. The 'writing-mode' and 'direction' properties, when specified for table column elements, are not inherited by cells in the column since columns don't exist in the document tree. Thus, CSS cannot easily capture the "dir" attribute inheritance rules described in [[HTML4.01], section 11.3.2.

Note. The 'writing-mode' and 'direction' properties interact with each other. As such, 'writing-mode' resets the 'direction' value. Similarly, modifying 'direction' after 'writing-mode' changes effectively the 'writing-mode' value to the opposite inline progression. For example, 'direction:rtl' applied to an element with 'writing-mode:lr-tb' effectively makes 'writing-mode:rl-tb'. This is one of the main reason why the mixed usage of these two properties is discouraged or at least they should be used with great caution.

3.3. Glyph orientation within a text run: the 'glyph-orientation-vertical' and 'glyph-orientation-horizontal' properties

In some cases, it is required to alter the orientation of a sequence of characters relative to the inline progression. The requirement is particularly applicable to vertical layouts of East Asian documents, where sometimes half-width Roman text is to be displayed horizontally and other times vertically.

Two properties control the glyph orientation relative to the inline progression. 'glyph-orientation-vertical' controls glyph orientation when the inline progression is vertical. 'glyph-orientation-horizontal' controls glyph orientation when the inline progression is horizontal. It is necessary to distinguish between vertical and horizontal for the following reasons:

• When the inline progression is vertical the typical glyph orientation depends on the related character. See the description of the 'auto' value. This value is not necessary in horizontal layout.
• The initial value is different for the two properties.

<angle>

The user agent may round the value of the angle to the values of glyph rotation supported by the user agent. Conforming user agents may only support the following values: 0deg, 90deg, 180deg and 270deg, other values can also be supported..

A value of "0deg" indicates that all glyphs are oriented with the bottom of the glyphs toward the inline progression, resulting in glyphs which are stacked vertically on top of each other. A value of "90deg" indicates a rotation of 90 degrees clockwise from the "0deg" orientation. For characters which have this property set to 90 or 270 degree, reordering is first applied according to the Unicode Bidi algorithm and then the resulting glyphs are rotated according to the <angle> value.

auto

The glyph orientation relative to the inline progression is determined automatically based on the Unicode character number of the rendered character.

Full-width ideographic and full-width Roman glyphs (excluding ideographic punctuation) are oriented as if an <angle> of "0deg" had been specified (i.e., glyphs are oriented with the bottom of the glyphs toward the inline progression, resulting in glyphs which are stacked vertically on top of each other).

Ideographic punctuation and other ideographic characters having alternate horizontal and vertical glyph shapes shall use the vertical shape of the glyph.

Text which is not full-width will be set as if an <angle> of "90deg" had been specified; thus, half-width Roman text will be rotated 90 degree clockwise versus full-width ideographic and full-width Roman text.

Hebrew and Arabic text are also rotated 90 degree clockwise. The visual order of this text is determined by the bidirectional algorithm applied prior to the rotation.

Note. A value of auto will generally produce the expected results in common uses of mixing Japanese with European characters; however, the exact algorithms are based on complex interactions between many factors, including font design, and thus different algorithms might be employed in different processing environments. For precise control, specify explicit <angle> values.

This property specifies the orientation of glyphs relative to the inline and block progressions determined by the 'writing-mode' property. This property is applied only to text written in a vertical writing-mode. Conforming user agents may do the following in increasing levels of supports:

1. support only the 90deg value,
2. support the 0deg, 90deg, 180deg and 270deg values,
3. support all values above and any number of additional values.

The value of this property affects both the alignment and height of the glyph area generated for the affected glyphs. If a glyph is oriented so that the normal orientation of the glyph is parallel to the dominant-baseline, then the vertical alignment-point of the rotated glyph is aligned with the alignment-baseline appropriate to that glyph. The baseline to which the rotated glyph is aligned is the vertical baseline identified by the "alignment-baseline" for the script to which the glyph belongs. The height of the glyph area is determined from the height font characteristic for the glyph.

The horizontal alignment points, baselines and heights (computed as glyph advance width) are used if the normal orientation of the glyph is perpendicular to the dominant-baseline.

The diagrams below illustrate different uses of 'glyph-orientation-vertical'. The diagram on the left shows the result of the mixing of full-width ideographic characters with half-width Roman characters when 'glyph-orientation-vertical' for the Roman characters is either auto or "90deg". The diagram on the right show the result of mixing full-width ideographic characters with half-width Roman characters when Roman characters are specified to have a 'glyph-orientation-vertical' of "0deg".

The bidi algorithm and the 'glyph-orientation-vertical' property have the following interaction:

1. The bidi algorithm is applied separately to each contiguous text range having the same glyph-orientation-vertical value. In other words a change in the property value resets the bidi algorithm.
2. When the glyph-orientation-vertical value is 270 degree, all mirroring symbols after all due bidi processing are mirrored (that is, their glyph is inverted along the 'horizontal' axis) before being rotated 270 degree clockwise. This is done to achieve the desired rendering result, which is to have the mirroring characters pointing 'inward' the text they are enclosing.

<angle>

The user agent may round the value of the angle to the values of glyph rotation supported by the user agent. A value of "0deg" indicates that all glyphs are oriented with the right edge of the glyphs toward the inline progression, resulting in glyphs which are positioned side by side. A value of "90deg" indicates an orientation of 90 degrees clockwise from the "0" orientation. For characters which have this property set to 0 or 180 degree, reordering is first applied according to the Unicode Bidi algorithm and then the resulting glyphs are rotated clockwise according to the <angle> value.

This property specifies the orientation of glyphs relative to the inline progression determined by the 'writing-mode' property. This property is applied only to text written in a horizontal writing-mode. Conforming user agents may do the following in increasing levels of supports:

1. support only the 0deg value,
2. support the 0deg, 90deg, 180deg and 270deg values,
3. support all values above and any number of additional values.

The value of this property affects both the alignment and width of the glyph area generated for the affected glyphs. If a glyph is oriented so that the normal orientation of the glyph is parallel to the dominant-baseline, then the vertical alignment-point of the rotated glyph is aligned with the alignment-baseline appropriate to that glyph. The baseline to which the rotated glyph is aligned is the horizontal baseline identified by the "alignment-baseline" for the script to which the glyph belongs. The width of the glyph area is determined from the vertical width font characteristic for the glyph.

The horizontal alignment points, baselines and widths are used if the normal orientation of the glyph is perpendicular to the dominant-baseline.

3.4. Embedding and override: the 'unicode-bidi' property

This property allows further control of the Unicode bidirectional algorithm by allowing new embedding levels or direction overrides. Values for this property have the following meanings:

normal

The element does not open an additional level of embedding with respect to the bidirectional algorithm. For inline-level elements, implicit reordering works across element boundaries.

embed

If the element is inline-level, this value opens an additional level of embedding with respect to the bidirectional algorithm. The direction of this embedding level is given by the 'direction' property. Inside the element, reordering is done implicitly. This corresponds to adding a LRE (U+202A; for 'direction: ltr') or RLE (U+202B; for 'direction: rtl') at the start of the element and a PDF (U+202C) at the end of the element.

bidi-override

If the element is inline-level or a block-level element that contains only continuous stretches of inline elements, this creates an override. This means that inside the element, reordering is strictly in sequence according to the 'direction' property; the implicit part of the bidirectional algorithm is ignored. This corresponds to adding a LRO (U+202D; for 'direction: ltr') or RLO (U+202E; for 'direction: rtl') at the start of the element and a PDF (U+202C) at the end of the element.

The final order of characters in each block-level element is the same as if the bidi control codes had been added as described above, mark-up had been stripped, and the resulting character sequence had been passed to an implementation of the Unicode bidirectional algorithm for plain text that produced the same line-breaks as the styled text. In this process, non-textual entities such as images are treated as neutral characters, unless their 'unicode-bidi' property has a value other than 'normal', in which case they are treated as strong characters in the 'direction' specified for the element.

Note. In order to be able to flow inline boxes in a uniform direction (either entirely left-to-right or entirely right-to-left), more inline boxes (including anonymous inline boxes) may have to be created, and some inline boxes may have to be split up and reordered before flowing.

Because the Unicode algorithm has a limit of 61 levels of embedding, care should be taken not to use 'unicode-bidi' with a value other than 'normal' unless appropriate. In particular, a value of 'inherit' should be used with extreme caution. However, for elements that are, in general, intended to be displayed as blocks, a setting of 'unicode-bidi: embed' is preferred to keep the element together in case display is changed to inline (see example below).

The following example shows an XML document with bidirectional text. It illustrates an important design principle: DTD designers should take bidi into account both in the language proper (elements and attributes) and in any accompanying style sheets. The style sheets should be designed so that bidi rules are separate from other style rules. The bidi rules should not be overridden by other style sheets so that the document language's or DTD's bidi behavior is preserved.

<hebrew>
  <par>HEBREW1 HEBREW2 english3 HEBREW4 HEBREW5</par>
  <par>HEBREW6 <emph>HEBREW7</emph> HEBREW8</par>
</hebrew>
<english>
  <par>english9 english10 english11 HEBREW12 HEBREW13</par>
  <par>english14 english15 english16</par>
  <par>english17 <he-quo>HEBREW18 english19 HEBREW20</he-quo></par>
</english>

/* Rules for bidi */
hebrew, he-quo  {direction: rtl; unicode-bidi: embed}
english         {direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed}

/* Rules for presentation */
hebrew, english, par  {display: block}
emph                  {font-weight: bold}

               5WERBEH 4WERBEH english3 2WERBEH 1WERBEH

                                8WERBEH 7WERBEH 6WERBEH

english9 english10 english11 13WERBEH 12WERBEH

english14 english15 english16

english17 20WERBEH english19 18WERBEH

       2WERBEH 1WERBEH
  -EH 4WERBEH english3
                 5WERB

   -EH 7WERBEH 6WERBEH
                 8WERB

english9 english10 en-
glish11 12WERBEH
13WERBEH

english14 english15
english16

english17 18WERBEH
20WERBEH english19

3.5. Script character classification: the 'script' property

In text layout, many of the behaviors are related to a character classification based on scripts. For example, line breaking or text justification behaviors depend on the 'dominant' script of the textual content of an element. Furthermore, baseline alignment may be processed based on the same dominant script. That dominant script can be heuristically determined by finding the first character (after reordering) that has an unambiguous script identifier in an element. It can also be explicitly specified by using the 'script' property.

Values have the following meanings:

auto

Use the first character descendant, after any reordering due to character direction and bi-directionality, which has an unambiguous script identifier to determine the dominant script of the element's content. This determines the computed script value. Each textual component of the element may however behave in typographical related behaviors as dictated by its script identifier. In the absence of any textual components with a clear script identifier (or no textual content at all), the computed value is 'Latin'.

none

Indicates the script is unknown or is not significant to the proper formatting of this element.

<script>

A script definition in conformance with [ISO15924]. All textual components of the element must behave in typography related behaviors as dictated by this script value, not the inherent script value of these textual components.

Note 1. The Unicode technical report [UTR-24]: Script Names specifies script allocations for the whole character repertoire covered by the Unicode Standard [UNICODE].

Note 2. Setting an explicit script property value on an element reclassifies all its textual content to the given script. For example setting the script to a script belonging to the CJK group (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) makes the content behave as a CJK content for line-breaking rules. And setting an Arabic text to Latin would prevent the context to be affected by the Kashida justification effect. Typically, this property should be set to an explicit script value only when the textual content is script ambiguous and a specific behavior is sought.

4. Text alignment and justification

4.1. Text alignment: the 'text-align' property

This property describes how inline content of a block is aligned. Values have the following meanings:

start

The text is aligned on the start of the inline progression.

end

The text is aligned on the end of the inline progression.

left, right

In horizontal inline progression, the text is aligned on the left or right respectively. In vertical inline progression, the alignment is UA dependent. Because these two values are not related to the current inline progression, the values 'start' and 'end' are typically preferred.

center

The text is center aligned.

justify

The text is justified. The justification algorithm can be further refined by using the 'text-justify' property. Conforming CSS2 user agents may interpret the value 'justify' as 'start'. Conforming CSS3 user agents must interpret the value 'justify' as specified.

<string>

Specifies a string on which cells in a table column will align (see the section on horizontal alignment in a column for details and an example). This value applies only to table cells. If set on other elements, it will be treated as 'start'.

A block of text is a stack of line boxes. In the case of 'start', 'end', 'left', 'right' and 'center', this property specifies how the inline boxes within each line box align with respect to the line box's start and end sides; alignment is not with respect to the viewport. In the case of 'justify', the UA may stretch the inline boxes in addition to adjusting their positions. (See also 'letter-spacing' and 'word-spacing'.)

Example(s):

In this example, note that since 'text-align' is inherited, all block-level elements inside the div element with 'class=center' will have their inline content centered.

div.center { text-align: center }

Note. The property initial value has changed between CSS2 and CSS3 from being UA dependent in CSS2 to be related to the current text advance direction in CSS3 (through the usage of the 'start' value).

4.2. Justification: the 'text-justify' property

This property selects the type of justify alignment. It affects the text layout only if 'text-align' is set to 'justify'. That way, UA's that do not support this property will still render the text as fully justified, which most of the time is at least partially correct. Typically the text-justify property does not affect the last line, unless the last line itself is justified. Most of the text-justify values affects writing systems in very specific ways. These writing systems (or group of) are:

• CJK and Hangul and by extension all 'wide' characters,
• Devanagari and all South Asian scripts using baseline connector like Bengali and Gurmukhi,
• South Eastern Asian scripts that do not use space between words (Thai, Lao, Khmer, Myanmar),
• Cursive scripts like Arabic,
• Scripts using space between word without connector (Latin-based, Hebrew, etc...) and symbol characters.

The text-justification behavior of textual components is guided by the script classification of the characters. The 'script' property allows to modify the behavior of these components.

Depending on the text-justify value, spacing may be altered between words or letters.

The possible values for the text-justify property are:

auto

The UA determines the justification algorithm to follow, based on a balance between performance and adequate presentation quality. Inter-word expansion is typically used for all scripts that use space as word delimiter. However, if the kashida-space property has a non zero value it is recommended to use kashida elongation for Arabic text.

inter-word

Selects the simplest and fastest full justification behavior, which spreads the text evenly across the line by increasing the width of the space between words only. The concept of a word is script dependent, the exact algorithm is determined by the user agent. At minimum, justification is expected to occur at each white space boundary. No expansion or compression occurs within the words, i.e. no additional letter spacing is created. No kashida effect takes place.

The diagram below illustrates this mode, by showing how the characters are laid out in the last two lines of an element:

Mixed glyph layout in the last two lines in an inter-word justified element

For example a viewer could render an 'inter-word' justified paragraph in the following way:

Inter-word justification applied to mixed text

newspaper

Selects the justification behavior in which both inter-word and inter-letter spacing can be expanded or reduced to spread the text across the whole line. Also, text distribution on any given line may depend on the layout or the contents of the previous or the following several lines. This is the significantly slower and more sophisticated type of the full justify behavior preferred in newspaper and magazines, as it is especially useful for narrow columns. For example, typically, compression is tried first. If unsuccessful, expansion occurs: inter-word spaces are expanded up to a threshold, and finally inter-letter expansion is performed. This is applied to all scripts groups except Devanagari and other South Asian writing systems using baseline connectors. The threshold value may be related to the column width (in number of characters). The exact layout algorithm is determined by the user agent. Further explanation about multi-column layout can be found in the CSS3 Multi-layout module.

The diagram below illustrates this mode:

Mixed character layout in the last two lines of a newspaper justified element

Note. In CSS3 a value of 'letter-spacing: 0' no longer inhibits spacing-out of words for justification. The letter-spacing value is just an entry to the letter-spacing process that occurs prior to the possible justification process. Justification may alter the initial spacing between letters, especially with the 'text-justify: newspaper' value.

inter-ideograph

In this mode, letter-spacing modification only occurs for the CJK group. Others only use inter-word expansion. No kashida effect takes place. This is the preferred justification in the context of the Japanese writing system, but not Latin nor Korean.

The diagram below illustrates this mode:

Mixed glyph layout in the last two lines in an inter-ideograph justified element

Below is an example of how this mode would work:

Inter-ideograph justification applied to mixed text

distribute

Like 'newspaper' it allows letter spacing modification for most script groups (except Hindi), but unlike newspaper, it does not prioritize between word spacing and letter spacing, i.e. the space character gets the same letter spacing modification as others. And by consequence there are no variations between narrow and wide columns. This value is best used in East Asian context.

The diagram below illustrates this mode:

Mixed character layout in the last two lines of a distribute justified element

For example a viewer could render a 'distribute' justified paragraph in the following way:

Distribute justification applied to mixed text

inter-cluster

Plays the same role as inter-ideograph but for South Eastern Asian scripts. That is letter spacing only occurs for clusters belonging to those scripts. A cluster is defined as a group of characters formatted as a single unit.

kashida

Plays the same role as inter-ideograph but for Arabic through the Kashida effect. That is, no letter spacing occurs for other scripts.

The following table describes the expansion/compression strategy for the combination of each script groups and the text-justify property value for each relevant text-justify property value:

*The values shown for the auto column are only a recommendation. The UAs might implement a different strategy.

*The Devanagari entry represents as well other scripts and writing systems used in India that use baseline connectors like Bengali and Gurmukhi.

4.3. Last line alignment: the 'text-align-last' property'

This property describes how the last line of the inline content of a block is aligned. This also applies to the only line of a block if it contains a single line, the line preceding a <br> element in a XHTML context, or a hard line break in other languages, and to last lines of anonymous blocks. Typically the last line is aligned like the other lines of the block element, this is set by the 'text-align' property. However, in some situations like when the 'text-align' property is set to 'justify', the last line may be aligned differently.

Values have the following meanings:

auto

The last line will be aligned like the other lines, that is determined by the value of the 'text-align' property. However, if the 'text-align' property is set to the value 'justify', the last line will be aligned to the start of the inline progression.

start, end and center

Start, end and center text respectively.

justify

The last line will be justified like the other lines, using the justification type set by the 'text-justify' property. Note however that if there is no expansion opportunity in the last line, the line might not appear justified.

size

The line content is scaled to fit on the line. All the fonts on the line must be scaled by the same factor. Typically this value is used for single line element. Finally, this value, unlike the others, may change (i.e. decrease) the number of lines in a block element.

The following XHTML example shows the usage of the alignment properties in a case where all lines are justified in a distributed justification. This is commonly found in East Asian typography:

p.distributealllines
 { text-align: justify;
   text-justify: distribute;
   text-align-last: justify }

4.4. Minimum and maximum font size: the 'min-font-size' and 'max-font-size' property

If 'text-align-last' is 'size', the fonts of the last line of an element are not allowed to become smaller than the smaller of 'font-size' and 'min-font-size'. 'auto' means that the user agent determine the minimum readable font-size for the media. For example, a value is 9px is recommended for Latin scripts.

If 'text-align-last' is 'size', the fonts of the last line of an element are not allowed to become larger than the larger of 'font-size' and 'max-font-size'. 'auto' means that there is no limit.

4.5. Additional compression: The 'text-justify-trim' property

This sets the individual font blank space compression permissions for the text justification algorithm, when 'text-justify' is anything other than 'inter-word'. This special type of space compression occurs on the font level, i.e. the blank space within the character area itself may be reduced without affecting the appearance of the glyph. This applies to wide-cell glyphs only. Possible values:

none

No wide-cell font space compression is allowed.

Glyph layout with no compression

punctuation

Space can be taken away only from wide-cell punctuation glyphs.

Glyph layout with punctuation compression

punct-and-kana

Space compression is allowed on wide-cell punctuation and wide-cell Kana glyphs.

Character layout with punctuation and Kana compression

4.6. Kashida effect: the 'text-kashida-space' property'

Kashida is a typographic effect used in Arabic writing systems that allows character elongation at some carefully chosen points in Arabic. Each elongation can be accomplished using a number of kashida glyphs, a single graphic or character elongation on each side of the kashida point. (The UA may use either mechanism based on font or system capability). The text-kashida-space property expresses the ratio of the kashida expansion size to the white space expansion size, 0% means no kashida expansion, 100% means kashida expansion only . This property can be used with any justification style where kashida expansion is used (currently text-justify: auto, kashida, distribute and newspaper).

In the diagram below showing two identical paragraphs of Arabic text, the blue line in the second line (not justified) shows the length that is used for kashida and divided among the elongation opportunities in the first line (justified), as indicated by the red underlines:

In that example no expansion occurs between the word themselves, indicating that the text-kashida-space property is set to 100%.

5. Indentation: the 'text-indent' property

This property specifies the indentation of the first line of text in a block. More precisely, it specifies the indentation of the first box that flows into the block's first line box. The box is indented with respect to the starting edge of the line box. User agents should render this indentation as blank space.

Values have the following meanings:

<length>

The indentation is a fixed length.

<percentage>

The indentation is a percentage of the containing block width.

The value of 'text-indent' may be negative, but there may be implementation-specific limits.

  p { text-indent: 3em }

6. Line breaking

6.1. Types of line breaking

In documents written in Latin-based languages, where runs of characters make up words and words are separated by spaces or hyphens, line breaking is relatively simple. In the most general case, (assuming no hyphenation dictionary is available to the UA), a line break can occur only at whitespace characters or hyphens, including U+00AD SOFT HYPHEN.

In ideographic typography, however, where what appears as a single glyph can represent an entire word and no spaces nor any other word separating characters are needed, a line breaking opportunity is not as obvious as a space. It can occur after or before many other characters. Certain line breaking restrictions still apply, but they are not as strict as they are in Latin typography.

Thai is another interesting example with its own special line breaking rules. Since Thai words are made up of runs of characters, it resembles Latin in that respect. But the lack of spaces as word delimiters, or in fact any consistent word delimiters, makes it similar to CJK. Thai, like Latin in the absence of a hyphenating dictionary, never breaks inside of words. In fact, a knowledge of the vocabulary is necessary to be able to correctly break a line of Thai text. Finally, the Unicode character: U+200B ZERO WIDTH SPACE can be inserted in such scripts to specify an explicit line breaking opportunity.

A number of levels of line-breaking "strictness" can be used in Japanese typography. These levels add or remove line breaking restrictions. The model presented in this specification distinguishes between two most commonly used line breaking levels for Japanese text, using the 'line-break' property.

In ideographic typography, it is also possible, though not always preferred, to allow line breaks to occur inside of quoted Latin and Hangul (Korean) words without following the line breaking rules of those particular scripts. The model proposed in this document gives the author control over that behavior through the 'word-break-CJK' property.

In addition, hyphenation is controlled by 'word-break-inside'. All these properties are also available through the 'word-break' short hand property.

Finally, there is an additional property 'wrap-option' which may influence line-breaking, especially the property value 'wrap-option: emergency' which provides for emergency word-breaking for long words.

Line breaking is also covered by the Unicode Standard Annex [UAX-14], available from the Unicode Web site. It contains a detailed recommendation and corresponding data for each Unicode character.

6.2. Line breaking: the 'line-break' property

This property selects the set of line breaking rules to be used for text. The values described below are especially useful to CJK authors, but the property itself is open to other, not yet specified settings for non-CJK authors as well. (This is an area for future expansion.)

normal

Selects the normal line breaking mode for CJK. While the UA is free to define its own line breaking restrictions for the 'normal' mode, it is recommended that breaks between small katakana and hiragana characters be allowed. That is the preference in modern Japanese typography, and is especially desirable for narrow columns. Japanese katakana words tend to be long, and it is preferable to allow line breaks to occur among such characters than to have excessive expansion due to justification.

strict

Selects a more restrictive line breaking mode for CJK text. While the UA is free to define its own line breaking restrictions for the 'strict' mode, it is recommended that the restrictions specified by the JIS X-4051 [JIS-X-4051] be followed. That implies that in this mode, small katakana and hiragana characters are not allowed to start a line.

In Japanese, a set of line breaking restrictions is referred to as "Kinsoku". JIS X-4051 [JIS-X-4051] is a popular source of reference for this behavior using the strict set of rules. This architecture involves character classification into line breaking behavior classes. Those classes are then analyzed in a two dimensional behavior table where each row-column position represents a pair action to be taken at the occurrence of these classes. For example, given a closing character class and an opening character class, the intersection in that table of these two classes (the first character belonging to the opening class and the second belonging to the closing class) will indicate no line breaking opportunity. The rules described by JIS X-4051 have been superseded by the Unicode Technical Report #14 mentioned earlier.

Note that both values, 'normal' and 'strict' imply that a set of line-breaking restrictions is in use. In fact, there appears to be no valid line breaking mode in CJK in which line breaks can appear just anywhere among ideographs.

6.3. Word breaking: the 'word-break-CJK', 'word-break-inside' properties and the shorthand 'word-break' property

This property controls line-breaking behavior inside of words from a CJK point of view. Possible values:

normal

Keeps non-CJK scripts together (according to their own rules), while Hangul and CJK (including the Korean Hanja characters) break everywhere or according to the rules of the 'line-break' mode. Note however that the behavior of non-CJK scripts can be superseded by using the value 'emergency' in the 'wrap-option' property, or the value 'hyphenate' in the 'word-break-inside' property.

break-all

Same as 'normal' for CJK and Hangul, but non-CJK scripts can break anywhere. This option is used mostly in a context where the text is predominantly using CJK characters with few non-CJK excerpts and it is desired that the text be better distributed on each line. The UAs may however limit the break everywhere behavior for script using clusters like Thai.

keep-all

Same as 'normal' for all non-CJK scripts. CJK and Hangul are kept together. This option should only be used in the context of CJK used in small clusters like in the Korean writing system.

The following example shows a paragraph style where all non-CJK scripts can break anywhere.

p.anywordbreaks { word-break: break-all }

This property controls the hyphenation behavior inside of words. Possible values:

normal

A word should always stay in a single line. Note however that this can be superseded by using the value 'break-all' in the 'word-break-CJK' property, or the value 'emergency' in the 'wrap-option' property. Moreover, explicit hyphenation characters (hyphen, soft hyphen, etc...) still create line breaking opportunities.

hyphenate

Words can be broken at an appropriate hyphenation point. It requires that the user agent have an hyphenation dictionary for the language of the text being broken. Setting this value activates the hyphenation engine in the user agent.

The 'word-break' property is a shorthand property for setting 'word-break-CJK', and 'word-break-inside', at the same place in the style sheet.

All word-break related properties are first reset to their initial values (all 'normal'). Then, those properties that are given explicit values in the 'word-break' shorthand are set to those values.

7. Text Wrapping, White-space Control and Text Overflow

The following section describes text wrapping, white-space handling and text overflow. Text wrapping and white-space handling are interrelated through the CSS2 'white-space' property combining these two effects together. Text wrapping and text overflow both deal with situation where the text reaches the flow after-edge of its containing box.

CSS3 clearly separates these three effects in different sets of property while keeping the 'white-space' property for compatibility reason.

7.1. Text wrapping: the 'wrap-option' property

This property controls whether or not text wraps when it reaches the flow edge of its containing block box

wrap

Line-breaking occurs if the line overflows the available block width. The specific line breaking algorithm is determined by the 'line-break' and word-break' properties.

no-wrap

No line wrapping is performed. In the case when lines are longer than the available block width, the overflow will be treated in accordance with the 'overflow' property specified in the element.

hard-wrap

The text is only wrapped where explicitly specified by line-break characters in the markup content or in the generated content.

emergency

Line-breaking occurs if the line overflow the available block width, even if the standard line breaking algorithm cannot determine any opportunity. For example, this deals with the situation of very long words constrained in a fixed-width container with no scrolling allowed.

7.2. White-space control: the 'linefeed-treatment', 'white-space-treatment', 'all-space-treatment' properties and the 'white-space' shorthand property

White-space processing in the context of CSS is the mechanism by which all white-space characters are interpreted for rendering purpose. The white-space set is determined by the XML [XML1.0] specification as being a combination of one or more space characters (Unicode value U+0020), carriage returns (U+000D), line feeds (U+000A), or tabs (U+0009).

Note: [HTML401] also defines the form feed character (U+000C) as a white space character, but that character is not part of any XHTML versions as they are all based on XML.

The amount of white space processing that can be achieved by a user agent that supports CSS is directly related to the CSS processing model, especially the document parsing and validation. After parsing and possible validation, the document tree may contain text nodes that contain unprocessed white space characters, or the document tree may already have been processed in a way that white space characters have been collapsed and partially removed (white space normalization).

In that respect, the CSS properties related to white space processing can only be effective if the CSS processor has access to the white space characters that were originally encoded in the document. However, end-of-line characters are typically handled (like by XML processors) in such a way that any arbitrary combination of end-of-line characters is replaced by a single line feed character (U+000A).

Note: XML Schema, through its 'whiteSpace' facet can constrain exactly the type of white space characters still available to a rendering process like CSS for elements containing string datatype. In addition, some XML languages like [XHTML1.0] may have their own white-space processing rules when parsing and validating documents with white-space characters. Therefore, some of the behaviors described below may be affected by these limitations and may be user agent dependent in these contexts.

The initial white-space processing, similar to [XHTMLMOD] is as follows:

• Leading and trailing white space inside a block element are not rendered.
• Line feed characters are rendered as one of the following characters: a space character, a zero width space character (U+200B), or no character (i.e. not rendered). The choice of the resulting character is conditioned by the script property of the characters preceding and following the line feed character.
• A sequence of white space characters without any line feed characters is rendered as a single space character.
• A sequence of white space characters with one or more line feed character is rendered similarly to a single line feed character.

Note: These rendering rules make no assumption about the storage model of these white-space character sequences. It is outside the scope of CSS to determine the character code values accessible through programming interface such as DOM. These rules do not apply to elements that have an explicit white-space rendering behavior (like the pre element in XHTML).

When white-space characters are collapsed for rendering purpose, the style applied to the collapsed set is the one that would be applied to first white-space character of the set.

The following properties: 'linefeed-treatment', 'white-space-treatment' and 'all-space-treatment' allow precise control of that behavior. The 'linefeed-treatment' determines the rendering of the line feed characters. The 'white-space-treatment' determines the rendering of white space character (except line feed). And the 'all-space-treatment' property determines the treatment of consecutive white-space characters after consideration of the two prior properties. The 'white-space' property is a shorthand property for these three properties as well as the 'wrap-option' property.

This property specifies the treatment of linefeeds (U+000A characters). Values have the following meanings:

auto

Linefeed characters are transformed for rendering purpose into one of the following characters: a space character, a zero width space character (U+200B), or no character (i.e. not rendered). The choice of the resulting character is conditioned by the script property of the characters preceding and following the line feed character in the same line flow elements part of the same block element. The result of the transformation can be treated by subsequent CSS processing (including white space collapsing).

ignore

Linefeed characters are ignored. i.e. they are transformed for rendering purpose into no character.

preserve

Linefeed characters indicate an end of line of boundary.

treat-as-space

Linefeed characters are transformed for rendering purpose into a space character (U+0020). The result of the transformation can be treated by subsequent CSS processing (including white space collapsing).

treat-as-zero-width-space

Linefeed characters are transformed for rendering purpose into a zero width space character (U+200B). The result of the transformation can be treated by subsequent CSS processing (including white space collapsing).

Note: The Unicode Standard recommends that the zero width space is considered a valid line-break point and that if two characters with a zero width space in between are placed on the same line they are placed with no space between them and that if they are placed on two lines no additional glyph area, such as for a hyphen, is created at the line-break.

This property specifies the treatment of space (U+0020) and other white space characters except for linefeeds (U+000A), since their treatment is determine by the linefeed-treatment property. White space characters, when rendered as an advance width, use the width of the space character (U+0020). Values have the following meanings:

ignore

White space characters, except for linefeeds, are ignored. i.e. they are transformed for rendering purpose into no character.

preserve

All white space characters are rendered as intended (advance width). The treatment of linefeeds is not determined by this property.

ignore-if-before-linefeed

Specifies that any white space characters, except for linefeeds, that immediately precedes a linefeed character, shall be discarded. This action shall take place regardless of the setting of the linefeed-treatment property.

ignore-if-after-linefeed

Specifies that any white space characters, except for linefeeds, that immediately follows a linefeed character, shall be discarded. This action shall take place regardless of the setting of the linefeed-treatment property.

ignore-if-surrounding-linefeed

Specifies that any white space characters, except for linefeeds, that immediately precedes or follows a linefeed character, shall be discarded. This action shall take place regardless of the setting of the linefeed-treatment property.

The "all-space-treatment" property specifies the treatment of all consecutive white-space (with no exception for linefeed characters, unlike the "white-space-treatment" property). Values have the following meanings:

preserve

All white space characters are rendered as intended. The tab character (U+0009) is rendered as the smallest non-zero number of spaces necessary to line characters up along tab stops that are every 8 characters.

collapse

Specifies that all the following characters should not be rendered if:

• the character is a white space (according to XML), and
• it is not a preserved linefeed (due to 'linefeed-treatment: preserve' ), and
• the immediately preceding (non-ignored) character is a white-space or the immediately following (non-ignored) character is a preserved linefeed.

This property declares how 'white-space' inside the element is handled. Setting a value on the 'white-space' property set the respective values on 'wrap-option', 'linefeed-treatment', 'white-space-treatment' and 'all-space-treatment'. The definition of the property values are establishing by referring to the individual white-space properties set as follows:

pre        { white-space: pre }
p          { white-space: normal }
td[nowrap] { white-space: nowrap }

7.3. Text overflow: the 'text-overflow-mode', 'text-overflow-ellipsis' properties and the shorthand 'text-overflow' property

Text overflow deals with the situation where some textual content is clipped when it overflows the element's box in its text advance direction as determined by the writing-mode property value. This situation may only occur when the 'overflow' property has the values: hidden, scroll and auto (in the latter case only when the UA behavior results in content scrolling).

Text overflow allows the author to introduce a visual hint at the two ending boundaries of the text flow within the element box (after and end). The hint is typically an ellipsis character "...", although the actual character representation may vary. An image may also be substituted. Setting a non empty string (or an uri for an image) for either text flow boundary enables the presentation of the hint. If both hints should appear, only the 'after' hint is rendered. Initially, only the end of line hint is shown (correspond to the right of any over flown lines for left to right inline progression).

The text-overflow is divided in properties: 'text-overflow-mode' that controls the presentation of hint characters, 'text-overflow-ellipsis' that controls the values of the hint characters presented at the box boundaries and a shorthand property: 'text-overflow'.

clip

clip text as appropriate for the text content. Glyphs representation of the text may be only partially rendered.

ellipsis

an ellipsis string is inserted at each box boundaries where a text overflow occurs. The values of these ellipsis strings is determined by the 'text-overflow-ellipsis' property. The insertions take place at the boundary of the last full glyph representation of a line of text.

ellipsis-word

similar to 'ellipsis', but the insertions take place at the boundary of the last full glyph representation of a word within the line of text.

The hint characters only replace textual information. If the clipping occurs on a replaced element, standard clipping occurs.

Although the property is not inherited, overflowing children blocks that are either statically or relatively positioned and do not have a specified width or height will be hinted as specified by their parent text-overflow-mode property value. Consider the following example:

<div class="citation">
<p class="sentence"><span class="nowrap">I didn't like the play,</span> but then I saw
it under adverse conditions - the curtain was up.
<div class="attributed-to">_Groucho_Marx_</div>
</p>
</div>

Here is the style sheet controlling the overflow situations:

div.citation      { width:100px; border: thin solid red; overflow: hidden;
                    text-overflow-mode:ellipsis;font-size:14px }
span.nowrap       { white-space : nowrap; }
div.attributed-to { position: relative;left:8px }

This will result in the content of the span to be partially visible and the ellipsis will be shown, the inner div which is relatively positioned will only show a partial ellipsis as it is offset by few pixels:

Other children blocks, like absolute positioned blocks, or blocks with specified width or height won't show hinting. For example, setting the p element of the previous figure with the following style:

p.sentence { width :100px; margin-top : 50px; margin-left : 50px; }

will result on no ellipsis shown for its content (because it has a specified width and furthermore the text wrapping occurs in the 'hidden' overflow area of its parent element). This would be shown like this:

In other words, the text-overflow-mode only affects the textual content of a block element which participate in its own inline flow.

<ellipsis-end>

controls the value of the hint characters presented after the text flow within each line of an element box. It takes as value a text string. An empty string disables the hint. The initial value is '...'. In a horizontal text flow ('writing-mode' = 'lr-tb), the hint string would appear on each line of the element box where the text overflows on the right.

<ellipsis-after>

controls the value of the hint character presented after the text flow within an element box. It takes as value a text string. An empty string disables the hints. The initial value is empty. In a horizontal text flow, the hint string would appear on the right side of the last line. If <ellipsis-after> is non empty and would appear at the same location than <ellipsis-end>, only <ellipsis-after> is shown.

uri

And URI can replace any of the string value and set an image to be used as the hint indication. Being specified is equivalent to a non empty string for the respective ellipsis.

The font-size used for the ellipsis characters is the element font-size.

This property is the shorthand for 'text-overflow-mode' and 'text-overflow-ellipsis'.

8. Text spacing

8.1. Letter spacing: the 'letter-spacing' property

This property specifies spacing behavior between text characters. Values have the following meanings:

normal

The spacing is the normal spacing for the current font. It is typically zero-length. However, this value allows the user agent to alter the space between characters in order to justify text.

<length>

This value indicates inter-character space in addition to the default space between characters. The value is added to the advance width of each spacing character or group of characters that are clustered in single grapheme unit (like in Thai, Khmer, etc.), including the last character of the element. Characters which are joined together by effect of applying a cursive font to them, or by standard typography rules (Arabic script, Northern Indian scripts like Devanagari) have the valued added to each spacing characters. Combining characters (not spacing) do not get any letter-spacing effect, only the combination of the base character and its combining characters does.

For justification purposes, user agents should minimize effect on letter-spacing as much as possible (priority to word-spacing expansion/compression as opposed to character-spacing expansion/compression).

Values may be negative, but there may be implementation-specific limits. The justification algorithm may further modify the inter-character spacing.

Because of the visual disruptive effect of modifying letter-spacing on writing systems which use joined characters, like for example Arabic, the usage of this property is discouraged in those cases.

There are cases like Japanese or Chinese writing systems where justification will change all letter-spacing effects as there is no other opportunity in the line to expand or compress the character content in order to fit the line span.

Character spacing algorithms are user agent-dependent. For example, the spacing will not occur necessarily between all characters, but instead between each glyph that constitutes either a letter or a cluster unit. Furthermore this property should not be used for scripts and/or fonts that link characters together (cursive fonts for Roman scripts, all Arabic cases, Indic scripts with headline like Devanagari, etc...). Character spacing may also be influenced by justification (see the 'text-align' property).

blockquote { letter-spacing: 0.1em }

blockquote { letter-spacing: 0cm }   /* Same as '0' */

When the resultant space between two characters is not the same as the default space, user agents should not use ligatures.

Conforming user agents may consider the value of the 'letter-spacing' property to be 'normal'.

8.2. Word spacing: the 'word-spacing' property

This property specifies spacing behavior between words. Values have the following meanings:

normal

The normal inter-word space, as defined by the current font and/or the user agent. If the inter-word boundary is delimited by one or several white-space characters, they should be visible. If there are no characters, the user agent doesn't have to create an additional character advance width.

none

There is no inter-word space. All white-space characters are treated like zero-length characters.

<length>

This value indicates inter-word space in addition to the default space between words. Values may be negative, but there may be implementation-specific limits.

Word spacing algorithms are user agent-dependent. Determining word boundary is typically done by detecting white space characters. There are however many scripts and writing systems that do not separate their words by any character (like Japanese, Chinese, Thai, etc...), detecting word boundaries in these cases require dictionary based algorithms that may not be supported by all user agents. Word spacing is also influenced by justification (see the 'text-align' property).

h1 { word-spacing: 1em }

Conforming user agents may consider the value of the 'word-spacing' property to be 'normal'.

8.3. Punctuation trimming: the 'punctuation-trim' property

This property determines whether or not a full-width punctuation mark character should be trimmed if it appears at the beginning of a line, so that its "ink" lines up with the first glyph in the line above and below. In some scenarios, it may be preferable for the author not to allow leading punctuation marks to be trimmed, for example when it is more important that the glyphs tend to line up vertically. In other scenarios such an effect is desirable, for example when it is more important for the author that as much text as possible fits on a single line.

Possible values:

none

Leading punctuation is not trimmed.

Glyph layout with no leading punctuation compression

start

Leading punctuation is trimmed.

Glyph layout with leading punctuation compression

(Note that this property may in the future be expanded to cover other punctuation behaviors for other types of punctuation as well, not just wide-cell.)

8.4. Adding space: the 'text-autospace' property

When a run of non-ideographic or numeric characters appears inside of ideographic text, a certain amount of space is often preferred on both sides of the non-ideographic text to separate it from the surrounding ideographic glyphs. This property controls the creation of that space when rendering the text. That added width does not correspond to the insertion of additional space characters, but instead to the width increment of existing glyphs.

(A commonly used algorithm for determining this behavior is specified in JIS X-4051 [JIS-X-4051].)

This property is additive with the 'word-spacing' and 'letter-spacing' [CSS2] properties, that is, the amount of spacing contributed by the 'letter-spacing' setting (if any) is added to the spacing created by 'text-autospace'. The same applies to 'word-spacing'.

Possible values:

none

No extra space is creat