CSS Nesting Module

1. Introduction

This section is not normative.

This module describes support for nesting a style rule within another style rule, allowing the inner rule’s selector to reference the elements matched by the outer rule. This feature allows related styles to be aggregated into a single structure within the CSS document, improving readability and maintainability.

1.1. Module Interactions

This module introduces new parser rules that extend the [CSS21] parser model. This module introduces selectors that extend the [SELECTORS4] module.

1.2. Values

This specification does not define any new properties or values.

1.3. Motivation

The CSS for even moderately complicated web pages often include lots of duplication for the purpose of styling related content. For example, here is a portion of the CSS markup for one version of the [CSS-COLOR-3] module:

table.colortable td {
  text-align:center;
}
table.colortable td.c {
  text-transform:uppercase;
}
table.colortable td:first-child, table.colortable td:first-child+td {
  border:1px solid black;
}
table.colortable th {
  text-align:center;
  background:black;
  color:white;
}

Nesting allows the grouping of related style rules, like this:

table.colortable {
  & td {
    text-align:center;
    &.c { text-transform:uppercase }
    &:first-child, &:first-child + td { border:1px solid black }
  }
  & th {
    text-align:center;
    background:black;
    color:white;
  }
}

Besides removing duplication, the grouping of related rules improves the readability and maintainability of the resulting CSS.

2. Nesting Style Rules

Style rules can be nested inside of other styles rules. These nested style rules act exactly like ordinary style rules—associating properties with elements via selectors—but they "inherit" their parent rule’s selector context, allowing them to further build on the parent’s selector without having to repeat it, possibly multiple times.

A nested style rule is exactly like a normal style rule, with the exception that its selector cannot start with an identifier or functional notation. Additionally, nested style rules can use relative selectors.

That is, a nested style rule like:

.foo {
  color: red;

  .bar {
    color: blue;
  }
}

is valid, and equivalent to:

.foo {
  color: red;
}
.foo .bar {
  color: blue;
}

The nested rule can also use the nesting selector to directly refer to the parent rule’s matched elements, or use relative selector syntax to specify relationships other than "descendant".

.foo {
  color: red;

  &:hover {
    color: blue;
  }
}

/* equivalent to: */

.foo { color: red; }
.foo:hover { color: blue; }

.foo {
  color: red;

  + .bar {
    color: blue;
  }
}

/* equivalent to: */

.foo { color: red; }
.foo + .bar { color: blue; }

However, starting the nested selector with an identifier (a type selector, in other words) is invalid:

div {
  color: red;

  input {
    margin: 1em;
  }
}
/* Invalid, because "input" is an identifier. */

Such selectors can still be written, they just need to be slightly rephrased:

div {
  color: red;

  & input { margin: 1em; }
  /* valid, no longer starts with an identifier */

  :is(input) { margin: 1em; }
  /* valid, starts with a colon,
     and equivalent to the previous rule. */
}

Why are there restrictions on nested rule selectors?

Nesting style rules naively inside of other style rules is, unfortunately, ambiguous—the syntax of a selector overlaps with the syntax of a declaration, so an implementation requires unbounded lookahead to tell whether a given bit of text is a declaration or the start of a style rule.

For example, if a parser starts by seeing color:hover ..., it can’t tell whether that’s the color property (being set to an invalid value...) or a selector for a <color> element. It can’t even rely on looking for valid properties to tell the difference; this would cause parsing to depend on which properties the implementation supported, and could change over time.

Forbidding nested style rules from starting with an identifier works around this problem—all declarations start with an identifier giving the property name, so the parser can immediately tell whether it’s parsing a declaration or style rule.

Some non-browser implementations of nested rules do not impose this requirement. It is, in most cases, eventually possible to tell properties and selectors apart, but doing so requires unbounded lookahead in the parser; that is, the parser might have to hold onto an unknown amount of content before it can tell which way it’s supposed to be interpreting it. CSS to date requires only a small, known amount of lookahead in its parsing, which allows for more efficient parsing algorithms, so unbounded lookahead is generally considered unacceptable among browser implementations of CSS.

2.1. Syntax

The contents of style rules now accepts nested style rules and at-rules, in addition to the existing declarations.

Nested style rules differ from non-nested rules in the following ways:

The selector of nested style rules must not start with an identifier or a functional notation.
A nested style rule accepts a <relative-selector-list> as its prelude (rather than just a <selector-list>). Any relative selectors are relative to the elements represented by the nesting selector.
If a selector in the <relative-selector-list> does not start with a combinator but does contain the nesting selector, it is interpreted as a non-relative selector.

The precise details of how nested style rules are parsed are defined in [CSS-SYNTAX-3].

The CSSWG is currently exploring the consequences of parsing lookahead, and may adjust the allowed syntax as a result. [Issue #7961]

An invalid nested style rule is ignored, along with its contents, but does not invalidate its parent rule.

For example, the following nestings are valid:

/* & can be used on its own */
.foo {
  color: blue;
  & > .bar { color: red; }
  > .baz { color: green; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: blue; }
  .foo > .bar { color: red; }
  .foo > .baz { color: green; }
*/


/* or in a compound selector,
   refining the parent’s selector */
.foo {
  color: blue;
  &.bar { color: red; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: blue; }
  .foo.bar { color: red; }
*/

/* multiple selectors in the list are all
   relative to the parent */
.foo, .bar {
  color: blue;
  + .baz, &.qux { color: red; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo, .bar { color: blue; }
  :is(.foo, .bar) + .baz,
  :is(.foo, .bar).qux { color: red; }
*/

/* & can be used multiple times in a single selector */
.foo {
  color: blue;
  & .bar & .baz & .qux { color: red; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: blue; }
  .foo .bar .foo .baz .foo .qux { color: red; }
*/

/* & doesn’t have to be at the beginning of the selector */

.foo {
  color: red;
  .parent & {
    color: blue;
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: red; }
  .parent .foo { color: blue; }
*/

.foo {
  color: red;
  :not(&) {
    color: blue;
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: red; }
  :not(.foo) { color: blue; }
*/

/* But if you use a relative selector,
  an initial & is implied automatically */

.foo {
  color: red;
  + .bar + & { color: blue; }
}

/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: red; }
  .foo + .bar + .foo { color: blue; }
*/

/* Somewhat silly, but & can be used all on its own, as well. */
.foo {
  color: blue;
  & { padding: 2ch; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: blue; }
  .foo { padding: 2ch; }

  // or

  .foo {
    color: blue;
    padding: 2ch;
  }
*/

/* Again, silly, but can even be doubled up. */
.foo {
  color: blue;
  && { padding: 2ch; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo { color: blue; }
  .foo.foo { padding: 2ch; }
*/

/* The parent selector can be arbitrarily complicated */
.error, #404 {
  &:hover > .baz { color: red; }
}
/* equivalent to
  :is(.error, #404):hover > .baz { color: red; }
*/

.ancestor .el {
  .other-ancestor & { color: red; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .other-ancestor :is(.ancestor .el) { color: red; }

/* As can the nested selector */
.foo {
  & :is(.bar, &.baz) { color: red; }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo :is(.bar, .foo.baz) { color: red; }
*/

/* Multiple levels of nesting "stack up" the selectors */
figure {
  margin: 0;

  > figcaption {
    background: hsl(0 0% 0% / 50%);

    > p {
      font-size: .9rem;
    }
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  figure { margin: 0; }
  figure > figcaption { background: hsl(0 0% 0% / 50%); }
  figure > figcaption > p { font-size: .9rem; }
*/
		
/* Example usage with Cascade Layers */
@layer base {
  html {
    block-size: 100%;

    & body {
      min-block-size: 100%;
    }
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  @layer base {
    html { block-size: 100%; }
    html body { min-block-size: 100%; }
  }
*/

/* Example nesting Cascade Layers */
@layer base {
  html {
    block-size: 100%;

    @layer support {
      & body {
        min-block-size: 100%;
      }
    }
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  @layer base {
    html { block-size: 100%; }
  }
  @layer base.support {
    html body { min-block-size: 100%; }
  }
*/
		
/* Example usage with Scoping */
@scope (.card) to (> header) {
  :scope {
    inline-size: 40ch;
    aspect-ratio: 3/4;
				
    > header {
      border-block-end: 1px solid white;
    }
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  @scope (.card) to (> header) {
    :scope { inline-size: 40ch; aspect-ratio: 3/4; }
    :scope > header { border-block-end: 1px solid white; }
  }
*/

/* Example nesting Scoping */
.card {
  inline-size: 40ch;
  aspect-ratio: 3/4;

  @scope (&) to (> header > *) {
    :scope > header {
      border-block-end: 1px solid white;
    }
  }
}

/* equivalent to
  .card { inline-size: 40ch; aspect-ratio: 3/4; }
  @scope (.card) to (> header > *) {
    :scope > header { border-block-end: 1px solid white; }
  }
*/

But these are not valid:

/* Selector starts with an identifier */
.foo {
  color: blue;
  div {
    color: red;
  }
}

Some CSS-generating tools that preprocess nesting will concatenate selectors as strings, allowing authors to build up a single simple selector across nesting levels. This is sometimes used with hierarchical name patterns like BEM to reduce repetition across a file, when the selectors themselves have significant repetition internally.

For example, if one component uses the class .foo, and a nested component uses .fooBar, you could write this in Sass as:

.foo {
        color: blue;
        &Bar { color: red; }
}
/* In Sass, this is equivalent to
   .foo { color: blue; }
   .fooBar { color: red; }
*/

Unfortunately, this string-based interpretation is ambiguous with the author attempting to add a type selector in the nested rule. Bar, for example, is a valid custom element name in HTML.

CSS doesn’t do this: the nested selector components are interpreted atomically, and not string-concatenated:

.foo {
        color: blue;
        &Bar { color: red; }
}
/* In CSS, this is instead equivalent to
   .foo { color: blue; }
   Bar.foo { color: red; }
*/

2.2. Nesting Other At-Rules

In addition to nested style rules, this specification allows nested group rules inside of style rules: any at-rule whose body contains style rules can be nested inside of a style rule as well.

When nested in this way, the contents of a nested group rule are parsed as <style-block> rather than <stylesheet>:

Style rules are nested style rules, with their nesting selector taking its definition from the nearest ancestor style rule.
Properties can be directly used, acting as if they were nested in a & {...} block.

Specifically, these rules are capable of being nested group rules:

all the conditional group rules (@media, @supports)
@layer
@scope
@container

The meanings and behavior of such nested group rules is otherwise unchanged, unless otherwise specified.

For example, the following conditional nestings are valid:

/* Properties can be directly used */
.foo {
  display: grid;

  @media (orientation: landscape) {
    grid-auto-flow: column;
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo {
    display: grid;
				
    @media (orientation: landscape) {
      & {
        grid-auto-flow: column;
      }
    }
  }
*/

/* finally equivalent to
  .foo { display: grid; }

  @media (orientation: landscape) {
    .foo {
      grid-auto-flow: column;
    }
  }
*/

/* Conditionals can be further nested */
.foo {
  display: grid;

  @media (orientation: landscape) {
    grid-auto-flow: column;

    @media (min-width > 1024px) {
      max-inline-size: 1024px;
    }
  }
}

/* equivalent to
  .foo { display: grid; }

  @media (orientation: landscape) {
    .foo {
      grid-auto-flow: column;
    }
  }

  @media (orientation: landscape) and (min-width > 1024px) {
    .foo {
      max-inline-size: 1024px;
    }
  }
*/

/* Example nesting Cascade Layers */
html {
  @layer base {
    block-size: 100%;

    @layer support {
      & body {
        min-block-size: 100%;
      }
    }
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  @layer base {
    html { block-size: 100%; }
  }
  @layer base.support {
    html body { min-block-size: 100%; }
  }
*/

/* Example nesting Scoping */
.card {
  inline-size: 40ch;
  aspect-ratio: 3/4;

  @scope (&) {
    :scope {
      border: 1px solid white;
    }
  }
}

/* equivalent to
  .card { inline-size: 40ch; aspect-ratio: 3/4; }
  @scope (.card) {
    :scope { border-block-end: 1px solid white; }
  }
*/

All directly-nested properties are treated as if they were collected together, in order, and nested in a nested style rule with the selector &, and placed before all other child rules. This includes in the OM. (That is, the childRules attribute actually starts with this nested style rule, containing all the directly-nested properties.)

For example, the earlier example:

.foo {
  display: grid;

  @media (orientation: landscape) {
    grid-auto-flow: column;
  }
}
/* equivalent to
  .foo {
    display: grid;

    @media (orientation: landscape) {
      & {
        grid-auto-flow: column;
      }
    }
  }
*/

is in fact exactly equivalent, producing the exact same CSSOM structure. The CSSMediaRule object will have a single CSSStyleRule object in its .childRules attribute, containing the grid-auto-flow property.

Note: This does mean that the serialization of such rules will differ from how they were originally written, with no directly-nested properties in the serialization.

2.2.1. Nested @scope Rules

When the @scope rule is a nested group rule, an & in the <scope-start> selector refers to the elements matched by the nearest ancestor style rule.

For the purposes of the style rules in its body and its own <scope-end> selector, the @scope rule is treated as an ancestor style rule, matching the elements matched by its <scope-start> selector.

That is, the following code:

.parent {
  color: blue;

  @scope (& > .scope) to (& .limit) {
    & .content {
      color: red;
    }
  }
}

is equivalent to:

.parent { color: blue; }
@scope (.parent > .scope) to (.parent > .scope .limit) {
  .parent > .scope .content {
    color: red;
  }
}

2.3. Mixing Nesting Rules and Declarations

When a style rule contains both declarations and nested style rules or nested conditional group rules, all three can be arbitrarily mixed. However, the relative order of declarations vs other rules is not preserved in any way.

For example, in the following code:

article {
  color: green;
  & { color: blue; }
  color: red;
}

/* equivalent to */
article {
  color: green;
  color: red;
  & { color: blue; }
}

For the purpose of determining the Order Of Appearance, nested style rules and nested conditional group rules are considered to come after their parent rule.

For example:

article {
  color: blue;
  & { color: red; }
}

Both declarations have the same specificity (0,0,1), but the nested rule is considered to come after its parent rule, so the color: red declarations wins the cascade.

On the other hand, in this example:

article {
  color: blue;
  :where(&) { color: red; }
}

The :where() pseudoclass reduces the specificity of the nesting selector to 0, so the color: red declaration now has a specificity of (0,0,0), and loses to the color: blue declaration before "Order Of Appearance" comes into consideration.

Note: While one can freely intermix declarations and nested rules, it’s harder to read and somewhat confusing to do so, since all the properties act as if they came before all the rules. For readability’s sake, it’s recommended that authors put all their properties first in a style rule, before any nested rules. (This also happens to act slightly better in older user agents; due to specifics of how parsing and error-recovery work, properties appearing after nested rules can get skipped.)

Note: Like with other types of rules, the serialization of style rules in the presence of nesting can vary from how they were originally written. Notably, all directly-nested properties will be serialized before any nested rules, which is another reason to write properties before rules.

3. Nesting Selector: the & selector

When using a nested style rule, one must be able to refer to the elements matched by the parent rule; that is, after all, the entire point of nesting. To accomplish that, this specification defines a new selector, the nesting selector, written as & (U+0026 AMPERSAND).

When used in the selector of a nested style rule, the nesting selector represents the elements matched by the parent rule. When used in any other context, it represents the same elements as :scope in that context (unless otherwise defined).

The nesting selector can be desugared by replacing it with the parent style rule’s selector, wrapped in an :is() selector. For example,

a, b {
  & c { color: blue; }
}

is equivalent to

:is(a, b) c { color: blue; }

The nesting selector cannot represent pseudo-elements (identical to the behavior of the :is() pseudo-class).

For example, in the following style rule:

.foo, .foo::before, .foo::after {
  color: red;

  &:hover { color: blue; }
}

the & only represents the elements matched by .foo; in other words, it’s equivalent to:

.foo, .foo::before, .foo::after {
  color: red;
}
.foo:hover {
  color: blue;
}

We’d like to relax this restriction, but need to do so simultaneously for both :is() and &, since they’re intentionally built on the same underlying mechanisms. (Issue 7433)

The specificity of the nesting selector is equal to the largest specificity among the complex selectors in the parent style rule’s selector list (identical to the behavior of :is()).

For example, given the following style rules:

#a, b {
  & c { color: blue; }
}
.foo c { color: red; }

Then in a DOM structure like

<b class=foo>
  <c>Blue text</c>
</b>

The text will be blue, rather than red. The specificity of the & is the larger of the specificities of #a ([1,0,0]) and b ([0,0,1]), so it’s [1,0,0], and the entire & c selector thus has specificity [1,0,1], which is larger than the specificity of .foo c ([0,1,1]).

Notably, this is different than the result you’d get if the nesting were manually expanded out into non-nested rules, since the color: blue declaration would then be matching due to the b c selector ([0,0,2]) rather than #a c ([1,0,1]).

Why is the specificity different than non-nested rules?

The nesting selector intentionally uses the same specificity rules as the :is() pseudoclass, which just uses the largest specificity among its arguments, rather than tracking which selector actually matched.

This is required for performance reasons; if a selector has multiple possible specificities, depending on how precisely it was matched, it makes selector matching much more complicated and slower.

That skirts the question, tho: why do we define & in terms of :is()? Some non-browser implementations of Nesting-like functionality do not desugar to :is(), largely because they predate the introduction of :is() as well. Instead, they desugar directly; however, this comes with its own significant problems, as some (reasonably common) cases can accidentally produce massive selectors, due to the exponential explosion of possibilities.

.a1, .a2, .a3 {
  .b1, .b3, .b3 {
    .c1, .c2, .c3 {
      ...;
    }
  }
}

/* naively desugars to */
.a1 .b1 .c1,
.a1 .b1 .c2,
.a1 .b1 .c3,
.a1 .b2 .c1,
.a1 .b2 .c2,
.a1 .b2 .c3,
.a1 .b3 .c1,
.a1 .b3 .c2,
.a1 .b3 .c3,
.a2 .b1 .c1,
.a2 .b1 .c2,
.a2 .b1 .c3,
.a2 .b2 .c1,
.a2 .b2 .c2,
.a2 .b2 .c3,
.a2 .b3 .c1,
.a2 .b3 .c2,
.a2 .b3 .c3,
.a3 .b1 .c1,
.a3 .b1 .c2,
.a3 .b1 .c3,
.a3 .b2 .c1,
.a3 .b2 .c2,
.a3 .b2 .c3,
.a3 .b3 .c1,
.a3 .b3 .c2,
.a3 .b3 .c3 {...}

Here, three levels of nesting, each with three selectors in their lists, produced 27 desugared selectors. Adding more selectors to the lists, adding more levels of nesting, or making the nested rules more complex can make a relatively small rule expand into multiple megabytes of selectors (or much, much more!).

Some CSS tools avoid the worst of this by heuristically discarding some variations, so they don’t have to output as much but are still probably correct, but that’s not an option available to UAs.

Desugaring with :is() instead eliminates this problem entirely, at the cost of making specificity slightly less useful, which was judged a reasonable trade-off.

The nesting selector is allowed anywhere in a compound selector, even before a type selector, violating the normal restrictions on ordering within a compound selector.

For example, &div is a valid nesting selector, meaning "whatever the parent rules matches, but only if it’s also a div element".

It could also be written as div& with the same meaning, but that wouldn’t be valid to start a nested style rule (but it could be used somewhere other than the very start of the selector).

4. CSSOM

4.1. Modifications to `CSSStyleRule`

CSS style rules gain the ability to have nested rules:

partial interface CSSStyleRule {
  [SameObject] readonly attribute CSSRuleList cssRules;
  unsigned long insertRule(CSSOMString rule, optional unsigned long index = 0);
  undefined deleteRule(unsigned long index);
};

The cssRules attribute must return a CSSRuleList object for the child CSS rules.

The insertRule(rule, index) method must return the result of invoking insert a CSS rule rule into the child CSS rules at index.

The deleteRule(index) method must remove a CSS rule from the child CSS rules at index.

Note: Serialization of CSSStyleRule with nested rules are already well-defined by [CSSOM], via serialize a CSS rule.

Note: The restriction on what a nested style rule’s selector can start with counts as a "constraint imposed by CSS" in step 5 of insert a CSS rule (when invoked by anything that takes nested style rules, not just CSSStyleRule itself).

When setting selectorText, if the CSSStyleRule is a nested style rule, and the returned group of selectors starts with a selector that starts with an ident or function token, do nothing and return.

The above paragraph will be inlined into the CSSOM algo, rather than monkey-patched.

Conformance

Document conventions

Conformance requirements are expressed with a combination of descriptive assertions and RFC 2119 terminology. The key words “MUST”, “MUST NOT”, “REQUIRED”, “SHALL”, “SHALL NOT”, “SHOULD”, “SHOULD NOT”, “RECOMMENDED”, “MAY”, and “OPTIONAL” in the normative parts of this document are to be interpreted as described in RFC 2119. However, for readability, these words do not appear in all uppercase letters in this specification.

All of the text of this specification is normative except sections explicitly marked as non-normative, examples, and notes. [RFC2119]

Examples in this specification are introduced with the words “for example” or are set apart from the normative text with class="example", like this:

Informative notes begin with the word “Note” and are set apart from the normative text with class="note", like this:

Advisements are normative sections styled to evoke special attention and are set apart from other normative text with <strong class="advisement">, like this: UAs MUST provide an accessible alternative.

Conformance classes

A style sheet is conformant to this specification if all of its statements that use syntax defined in this module are valid according to the generic CSS grammar and the individual grammars of each feature defined in this module.

A renderer is conformant to this specification if, in addition to interpreting the style sheet as defined by the appropriate specifications, it supports all the features defined by this specification by parsing them correctly and rendering the document accordingly. However, the inability of a UA to correctly render a document due to limitations of the device does not make the UA non-conformant. (For example, a UA is not required to render color on a monochrome monitor.)

An authoring tool is conformant to this specification if it writes style sheets that are syntactically correct according to the generic CSS grammar and the individual grammars of each feature in this module, and meet all other conformance requirements of style sheets as described in this module.

Partial implementations

So that authors can exploit the forward-compatible parsing rules to assign fallback values, CSS renderers must treat as invalid (and ignore as appropriate) any at-rules, properties, property values, keywords, and other syntactic constructs for which they have no usable level of support. In particular, user agents must not selectively ignore unsupported component values and honor supported values in a single multi-value property declaration: if any value is considered invalid (as unsupported values must be), CSS requires that the entire declaration be ignored.

Implementations of Unstable and Proprietary Features

Non-experimental implementations

Once a specification reaches the Candidate Recommendation stage, non-experimental implementations are possible, and implementors should release an unprefixed implementation of any CR-level feature they can demonstrate to be correctly implemented according to spec.

To establish and maintain the interoperability of CSS across implementations, the CSS Working Group requests that non-experimental CSS renderers submit an implementation report (and, if necessary, the testcases used for that implementation report) to the W3C before releasing an unprefixed implementation of any CSS features. Testcases submitted to W3C are subject to review and correction by the CSS Working Group.

CSS Nesting Module

Abstract

Status of this document

1. Introduction

1.1. Module Interactions

1.2. Values

1.3. Motivation

2. Nesting Style Rules

2.1. Syntax

2.2. Nesting Other At-Rules

2.2.1. Nested @scope Rules

2.3. Mixing Nesting Rules and Declarations

3. Nesting Selector: the & selector

4. CSSOM

4.1. Modifications to `CSSStyleRule`

Conformance

Document conventions

Conformance classes

Partial implementations

Implementations of Unstable and Proprietary Features

Non-experimental implementations

Index

Terms defined by this specification

Terms defined by reference

References

Normative References

Informative References

IDL Index

Issues Index

CSS Nesting Module

Abstract

Status of this document

1. Introduction

1.1. Module Interactions

1.2. Values

1.3. Motivation

2. Nesting Style Rules

2.1. Syntax

2.2. Nesting Other At-Rules

2.2.1. Nested @scope Rules

2.3. Mixing Nesting Rules and Declarations

3. Nesting Selector: the & selector

4. CSSOM

4.1. Modifications to CSSStyleRule

Conformance

Document conventions

Conformance classes

Partial implementations

Implementations of Unstable and Proprietary Features

Non-experimental implementations

Index

Terms defined by this specification

Terms defined by reference

References

Normative References

Informative References

IDL Index

Issues Index

4.1. Modifications to `CSSStyleRule`