Abstract

This document describes requirements for pagination and layout of books in latin languages, based on the tradition of print book design and composition. It is hoped that these principles can inform the pagination of digital content as well, and serve as a reference for the CSS Working Group and other interested parties. This work was inspired by [JLREQ].

Status of This Document

This section describes the status of this document at the time of its publication. Other documents may supersede this document. A list of current W3C publications and the latest revision of this technical report can be found in the W3C technical reports index at http://www.w3.org/TR/.

This is a work in progress. No section should be considered final, and the absence of any content does not imply that such content is out of scope, or may not appear in the future. If you feel something should be covered here, tell us! The initial version of this document will focus on books, and at this time will not include requirements specific to magazines or newspapers. The scope will depend heavily on the willingness of people to contribute to this document. Please contact the Digital Publishing Interest Group if you would like to help.

This document was published by the Digital Publishing Interest Group as a First Public Working Draft. Once the document is stable, the group will publish it as an Interest Group Note. If you wish to make comments regarding this document, please send them to public-digipub@w3.org (subscribe, archives). All comments are welcome.

Publication as a First Public Working Draft does not imply endorsement by the W3C Membership. This is a draft document and may be updated, replaced or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to cite this document as other than work in progress.

The disclosure obligations of the Participants of this group are described in the charter.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

This section is non-normative.

Not all stories worth telling can fit in a tweet, on a computer screen, or on a single piece of paper. Ever since the codex replaced the scroll, humans have divided our stories into pages. Pagination is the art and the craft of turning that scroll of content into discrete pieces, whether destined for book pages or screens. Pagination requires us to think about the document at all levels, from the total number of pages to the tiny spaces between letters. Along with graphic design and typography, it determines the look of the page.

Typography is the craft of endowing human language with a durable visual form, and thus with an independent existence.

—Robert Bringhurst, The Elements of Typographic Style

Good pagination, like good typography, aims to be invisible. As the reader turns the page, the stream of words and images in her mind should not be interrupted. Two thousand years of experience have taught us how best to do this. The goal of this document is to describe those rules, as clearly as possible, so they can be implemented in the Open Web Platform. We hope for a day where the pagination of digital books will be as beautiful and transparent as the best printed books.

2. Conformance

As well as sections marked as non-normative, all authoring guidelines, diagrams, examples, and notes in this specification are non-normative. Everything else in this specification is normative.

The key words MUST, MUST NOT, REQUIRED, SHOULD, SHOULD NOT, RECOMMENDED, MAY, and OPTIONAL in this specification are to be interpreted as described in [RFC2119].

TK

3. Fundamentals

Makeup is a highly skilled procedure. If the text is merely divided mechanically into portions of equal length, without regard to where the divisions fall, some of the pages that result are bound to be unacceptable logically or aesthetically: they will incorporate bad breaks.

Chicago Manual of Style, 14th Edition, 19.40.

What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder.

The Bible, Matthew 19:6

Every rule of pagination boils down to a single principle: break pages with as little disruption to the reading experience as possible. A widow leaves the last line of a paragraph isolated from the rest of the thought. A recto hyphen means a word is interrupted by a page turn. A heading at the bottom of a page removes the title from the section, and the section from the title.

3.1 Tradeoffs

Pagination involves tradeoffs. Fixing a widow may result in a misaligned spread. Fixing that may result in a loose line or paragraph. What is acceptable in one book, or for one publisher, may be unacceptable to another. What is acceptable in one country, or language, may be unacceptable elsewhere.

3.2 Untangling the Vertical and the Horizontal

Page breaks are often line breaks. The tiniest change in kerning can make a paragraph longer or shorter, and thus create a widow or an orphan. The work of pagination, as done by typesetters, human or machine, inevitably involves the consideration of the lines of text. And so we will not try too hard to avoid talking about line breaks, when they potentially influence pagination.

4. Hyphenation and Justification

Good hyphenation and justification is critically important to the appearance and readability of text. Print typesetting systems can often achieve very good results, but most online reading systems do this very poorly.

4.1 Hyphenation

Text is often easier to read when words are allowed to break at the end of lines, thus avoiding massive variations in word-spacing or margins. But determining acceptable places to break words is a difficult problem:

All of the following are the results of automated hyphenation algorithms:

pre-ached
wee-knights
read-just
leg-ends
ex-acting
reap-ear
co-inage

Words hyphenate differently based on pronunciation or meaning:

 photo-graph
 pho-togra-pher
 
 re-cord (verb)
 rec-ord (noun)
 
 pres-ent (verb)
 pre-sent (noun)
 
 cre-ator
 crea-ture
 

4.1.1 Parameters for Hyphenation

The following choices need to be made when considering hyphenation of text.

  1. Should this text be hyphenated at all? Hyphenation is generally suppressed in headings.
  2. What’s the shortest word that can be hyphenated? Five or six is typical.
  3. What's the minimum number of characters allowed before a hyphen? Two is typical, and is sometimes stated as “two-up.”
  4. What's the minimum number of characters allowed after a hyphen? Three is typical, and can be stated as “three-down.”
  5. How many consecutive lines can end with a hyphen (known as a “ladder”)? Two or three is typical.
  6. Should capitalized words be hyphenated?
  7. Can the last word of a paragraph be hyphenated?
  8. Can the last word in a column, page, or spread be hyphenated?

4.1.2 Choosing hyphenation points

A key question is, “who decides what is acceptable?” The answer depends on the language, the culture, the subject matter, and the material being typeset.

4.1.2.1 Language

Each language has its own conventions about hyphenation. U.S. English hyphenates differently than U.K. English. In some European languages, words may be spelled differently when hyphenated.

TK

Of course, the same text may include words from many different languages.

4.1.2.2 Culture

Even within the same language, authorities differ on the proper hyphenation of words.

in-de-pen-dent (American Heritage Dictionary)
in-de-pend-ent (Webster’s)

Copyeditors will often specify a canonical reference for hyphenation, which is usually a particular edition of a particular dictionary.

4.1.2.3 Subject Matter

Specialized subject matter may require additional hyphenation dictionaries. This is common in medicine, law, and science.

4.1.2.4 Exceptions

Authors should be able to provide a list of exceptions, which add to or override what the system would normally do. The format for doing so should be easily understood.

TeX uses the following format. Possible hyphenation positions are indicated with (surprise!) hyphens. Hyphenation should be prevented where hyphens are absent.

\hyphenation { sur-pris-ingly tan-ta-liz-ing-ly these }

4.2 Justification

4.2.1 Algorithms

4.2.1.1 Greedy
4.2.1.2 Knuth-Plass (TeX)
4.2.1.3 Adobe (InDesign)

5. Paginating Single-Column Text

The simplest situation, which is very common, is when the content is only text, in a single column. Aside from chapter and book optimizations (to be discussed later) and line-breaking, the biggest issue is likely to be widows (see Fig. 1 Text spread with widow for an example).

5.1 Widows

A widow is when the last line(s) of a paragraph falls at the top of a page. Publishers have different standards. Most frown on a single line at the top of the page, although some are OK if that line spans at least three-quarters of the page. Others require at least two lines of a paragraph at the top of a page.

Issue 1

[css3-break] does not consider a fractional value for the widow property.

diagram of facing text pages with widow at top of verso page
Fig. 1 Text spread with widow

Many typesetting systems have settings to prevent widows. CSS discusses these issues in [css3-break]. Unfortunately, these systems usually create another problem when they fix the widow. In Fig. 2 Widow fixed, but pages don’t align , there’s no longer a widow at the top of the page, but since the system merely moved a line from the left page to the right, it left behind an empty line, and the pages no longer align at the bottom.

diagram of facing text pages where left page is one line shorter than right page
Fig. 2 Widow fixed, but pages don’t align

More needs to be done. Removing one line of text from each page of the spread, shown in Fig. 3 Widow fixed by “running short.” solves the problem.

diagram of facing text pages where left page is one line shorter than right page
Fig. 3 Widow fixed by “running short.”

5.2 Orphans

An orphan has two possible meanings in typesetting. It can refer to the minimum number of lines required before a page break (as in [css3-break]). It can also refer to the last line of a paragraph in any context. In the former context, many publishers now accept a single line of a paragraph before a page break. For the latter, standards vary widely. Some publishers want the last line to be longer than the paragraph indent. Some require one or two full words, or a certain number of characters. Most avoid having only a fragment of a word as the last line.

Issue 2

CSS does not currently address the second meaning of orphan.

5.3 Constraints on page depth

In traditional typesetting, the first defense against bad breaks is to change the depth of the page. “Running long” or “running short” means including one more (or one less) line of text on each page of the spread, thus sidestepping the previously-identified issue.

A typical book design includes instructions on whether it’s acceptable to run short, long, or (more rarely) both. Often there are also constraints on how many consecutive spreads (or pages) may be altered in this way. If running both long and short, it’s usually forbidden to go from one to another without an intervening normal spread.

Running long or short may affect the space between the last line of text and a page footer or folio. Most publishers prefer footers to be in a fixed position. If, instead, the space between the last line of text and the footer is fixed, the footer is said to "bounce."

5.4 Facing Pages

If a document has facing pages, the publisher usually requires that they align top and bottom. Exceptions include:

  1. It's the last page of a chapter.
  2. The page contains no text—only images or tables
  3. When aligning facing pages will make some other issue worse

5.5 Recto and Verso Hyphens

Publishers sometimes constrain what characters may appear before a page break. Most commonly, the right-hand page of a spread may not end with a word fragment, as the reader must turn the page before reading the rest of the word. Less common is a prohibition on the verso page ending with a hyphen.

5.6 Space Breaks and Ornaments

Many novels, and some narrative non-fiction books, include small breaks in the text. These are usually represented by one to three blank lines, or by a small ornament or dingbat. Problems arise when these breaks fall at the top or bottom of a page.

Fig. 4 Space break

If, however, the space break falls at the bottom of the page, confusion can result. In Fig. 5 Incorrect: Space break at bottom of page , it’s hard to tell there’s a space break, as it just looks like the page is a few lines short.

Fig. 5 Incorrect: Space break at bottom of page

In that case, asterisks or some other ornament is added to the top or bottom of a page, as a visual reminder of the break. To get everything to work out, the spread was run short, and the space break (now with ornament) pushed to the top of the second page. See Fig. 6 Space break at top of page with asterisks .

Fig. 6 Space break at top of page with asterisks

This is an example where the page position of an element determines its content as well as design. A ::page-top or ::page-bottom pseudo-element might prove useful.

6. Paragraphs and indentation

TK

7. Initial Capitals

Large, decorative letters have been used to start new sections of text since long before printing. In fact, their use predates lowercase letters entirely.

7.1 Drop caps

A drop cap is a larger-than-usual letter at the start of a paragraph, with a baseline at least one line lower than the first baseline of the paragraph. The size of drop caps is usually indicated by how many lines they occupy—two-line and three-line drop caps are the most common.

Fig. 7 Two-line drop cap

Aligning the letter vertically is a challenge. The top of the letter should align with the ascenders of the first line of text. The baseline of the letter should fall on the baseline of one of the following lines (the second for a 2-line drop cap, etc.).

Fig. 8 Three-line drop cap

The horizontal position of the drop cap and the surrounding text is also an issue, as variations in glyph shapes may require increasing or decreasing space to the right of the drop cap, and in some cases separate adjustments may be required for each line adjacent to the drop cap.

Fig. 9 Drop cap without runaround
Fig. 10 Drop cap with runaround

The position of a drop cap in relation to the left margin may also need to be adjusted. Letters like "C" may need to move left slightly to visually align with the left margin.

A drop cap may be desired on a paragraph which starts with a punctuation mark, most often a quotation mark. In this case, one option is to delete the quotation mark entirely.

Note

Input on techniques for coping with initial punctuation on drop caps would be appreciated.

Note

CSS needs a better mechanism to define drop caps. Right now, people typically apply a span to the letter, and then use:

span.dropcap {
float: left;
font-size: 5.3em;
line-height: .85em;
margin-bottom: -.1em;
}
Fig. 11 CSS Drop cap with Apple Garamond
This requires much trial and error to get the drop cap both the right height, and with the right vertical position. But what if the font changes?

Fig. 12 CSS Drop cap with Georgia
Fig. 13 CSS Drop cap with Palatino

As you can see, when the font changes, the alignment is not preserved, and the drop cap may even crash into the adjacent text.

7.2 Raised caps

A raised cap is a large letter used to start a paragraph, which uses the same baseline as the rest of the first line.

Note

Raised caps are much easier than drop caps in CSS, as often one needs only to define the font size.

8. Running headers and footers

Books often have material printed at the top and/or bottom of each page, outside the normal content area. These headers or footers may serve as guideposts for reader, fodder for designers, low-tech DRM, or merely a way to know what book your fellow train passenger is reading. There’s more to running headers than is dreamt of in the open web platform…

8.1 Content

Running heads and footers may contain:

  1. Content from the document: book title, chapter or part titles, author name(s). Indexes and notes sections may have running heads to identify which entries are on a particular page.
  2. Content intended only for running heads: shortened versions of chapter titles…
  3. Page or section numbers
  4. Chapter numbers
  5. ornaments or other decorative type
  6. Copyright statements
  7. Date and/or time stamps
  8. File names
  9. Version numbers
  10. combinations of the above

In some cases the content of running heads may have an internal structure—a chapter title might have an italic word—or may require different text styles or fonts.

Fig. 14 Running head with text ornament

In this example, the running header contains the author name, the page number, and an ornament. This seemingly simple case was quite complex, using [css3-gcpm]-like features implemented by PrinceXML.

@page body:left {
  @top-center { 
    content: flow(verso);
    }
  }

p.verso-cus {
  flow: static(verso);
  content: prince-glyph-index(80);
  font-family: 'Type Embellishments One';
  font-size: 10pt;
  text-align: center;
}

p.verso-cus:before {
  content: counter(page);
  display: inline;
  padding-right: 15pt;
  font-family: 'Garamond 3 LT Std';
  font-style: italic;
  font-size: 10pt;
}

p.verso-cus:after {
  content: string(flow-header-left-rw);
  display: inline;
  padding-left: 15pt;
  font-family: 'Garamond 3 LT Std';
  font-style: italic;
  font-size: 10pt;
}

8.2 Placement

Running heads are generally omitted from the first pages of chapters.

Note

Running headers are addressed by [css3-gcpm].

[epub3] has minimal support for headers and footers using oeb-page-head and oeb-page-foot.

Has any EPUB reading system implemented oeb-page-*?

[css3-gcpm] has two mechanisms for placing content in running heads:

  1. named strings TK
  2. running elements TK

9. Heads

9.1 General Considerations

TK

9.2 Heads at the top of a page

When a head falls at the top of a page, a spacing adjustment is often necessary. Here's a typical arrangement, with a line and a half of space above the head, and a half-line-space below, so that the text stays on the proper baselines.

Fig. 15 Level One Head in Text

If that head appears at the top of the page, the subsequent text will be off by a half-line.

Fig. 16 Head at top of page

Everything works out if we add a half-line-space back.

Fig. 17 Head sunk to get back on lead

9.3 Heads at the bottom of a page

A head should never be the last thing on a page; it must be followed by two or three lines of text.

9.4 Bridge heads, side heads, and run-in heads

TK

10. Images

10.1 TK

Fig. 18 Figure with caption and runaround

Some things to note about this image

  1. the caption and image are treated as a unit
  2. Text runs around the image+caption
  3. image runs right up to the gutter of the page (i.e. extends beyond usual content area)

10.2 Inline images

TK

10.3 Bleeds

TK

Images that cross spread

image before callout?

placing multiple images on page… inside/outside, top/bottom, stagger

broadside

placement of caption/title

11. Tables

11.1 Alignment

Many tables have specialized requirements for the alignment of cells in a given column.

11.1.1 Align on character

All entries in a given column may need to align to a predetermined character, most commonly a decimal point. Typically, the longest entry in the column should be centered, and then the other entries should align to that entry.

In some cases, a composite “longest entry” needs to be constructed:

|   445.85  |
| 12345.6   |
|     1.234 |
|      .1   |
In this case, the user agent should act as if 12345.234 was the longest line, so the margin to the left of 12345.6 will be equal to the margin to the right of 1.234.

When a collection of whole numbers with no decimal points are in a column and are asked to align, the longest whole number should center in the column and the rest of the whole numbers should right align on the right indent of the longest whole number.

If the content of a table cell is being aligned to a character, that content should not have wrapping applied by the rendering system.

11.1.2 Flush left center alignment

Issue 4

What should we call this?

Also known as centering on the longest line, the longest line in a column is found and centered, and other entries in the column are aligned to the left edge of the longest line.

As before, header and footer cells are ignored, and the author should be able to exclude specified cells from the alignment process.

This type of alignment is often used in text, for poetry or prose extracts.

User agents should not break single-word cells.

11.2 Table widths

In print, tables are not randomly sized but typically set to one of a few fixed widths. This requirement necessitates that a composition engine know how to “snap to” one of the desired widths. This may help show relationships between separate tables.

broadside

placement of caption/title

spread

multi-page

continued lines

12. Lists

13. Footnotes

Having to read footnotes resembles having to go downstairs to answer the door while in the midst of making love.

—Noël Coward

In print publishing, a footnote consists of two parts: a reference (often rendered as an asterisk or superscripted number) and the footnote body.

Footnotes themselves can be quite complicated. Footnotes can contain multiple paragraphs, block quotes, poems, lists, and tables. Footnotes can contain other footnotes (an edge case, admittedly, but David Foster Wallace was notorious for this). Footnotes can extend across multiple pages. In short, a footnote is a container that can hold almost anything.

In order to describe footnotes in HTML, one must separate the footnote reference (which is an inline element) from the footnote itself, as HTML frowns on placing complex block structures inside paragraphs. This is quite different from something like DocBook, where the content model allows a footnote element inside a paragraph, and that footnote can itself contain multiple paragraphs, etc.

Example 1
<p>It was the best of times<span class="ref-footnote-rw">*</span>, it was the blurst of times.</p>

<div class="block-rw footnotes-rw">
<p><span class="num-footnote-rw">*</span>Oh yes, but the telephone is so impersonal.</p>
<p>I prefer the hands-on touch you only get with hired goons.</p>
</div>

There may also be more than one reference to the same footnote.

Footnote handling as described in [css3-gcpm] assumes the footnote is coded inline at the point of reference. This situation is under discussion on the www-style list.

13.1 Inline footnotes and multiple footnote regions

Some types of footnotes may be displayed inline, as in the top Fig. 19 Inline footnotes . Other books (see Fig. 20 Multiple footnote regions ) may have two separate streams of footnotes, requiring two footnote regions.

Page of Hamlet showing inline footnotes above block footnotes
Fig. 19 Inline footnotes
Page of Hamlet showing inline footnotes above block footnotes
Fig. 20 Multiple footnote regions
Fig. 21 Multiple footnote regions #2

13.2 At the foot of what?

Footnotes usually fall at the bottom of the page, but may need to be at placed at the end of a column, table, sidebar, or other document structure.

13.3 Breaking footnotes across pages

Some footnotes can extend across more than one page. Limits on the size of the footnote area(s) may be required, so that a page containing only footnotes is avoided.

13.4 Numbering

In addition to the usual numbering schemes, footnotes may be identified by a sequence of symbols: *, †, ‡, and §. This sequence usually restarts every page. If there are more than four footnotes per page, the symbols are doubled, tripled, etc.

Note

Footnotes are addressed by [css3-gcpm].

Digital publications often render footnotes differently from print. They may become pop-ups, or move to the end of the section, or even to the end of the document.

14. Cross-references

TK

16. Marginalia

alignment with reference

17. Equations

17.1 Breaking equations

TK

17.2 Numbering equations

TK

17.3 Aligning equations

Many educational publishers require that all equations on a page align on the equals sign.

    x + 3z = 7 + 2y
2x + y + z = 4
   10 + 2y = 3x + 2z

18. Columns

19. Punctuation

Spacing around punctuation marks is a known obsession of typographers.

19.1 Language-specific spacing rules

Punctuation English French
Exclamation Point ! ! [thin space]!
Colon : [thin space]:
Question Mark ? ? [thin space]?
Open Quote «[thin space]
Close Quote [thin space]»

19.2 Em-dashes and en-dashes

To space or not to space? That is the question. Even within publishing houses, arguments continue over the proper display of em-dashes. Some imprints at Hachette use closed em-dashes, others insist on thin spaces around em-dashes. If the same book is to be published in the United Kingdom, em-dashes would be replaced with en-dashes, with larger spaces around them.

Given the subtlety of many of these rules, it’s helpful to use CSS to generate typographically-sophisticated output from material written by lay authors, or to adapt content to varying publisher or language requirements.

Older drafts of [css3-gcpm] contained a text-replace property, which has been implemented by PrinceXML.

body {
prince-text-replace: "—" "\200A—\200A";
}

In this example, we’re adding hair spaces around em-dashes.

20. Special Considerations for Genres

20.1 Education

20.2 Trade

20.3 STEM

20.4 Reference

21. Digital Issues

22. Large-Scale Issues in Pagination

22.1 Book optimization

In trade publishing, we often know how many pages will be in a book before it is written. The nature of printing and binding also mandate that the number of pages in a book be some multiple of eight, sixteen, or thirty-two pages. Publishers often limit how many blank pages are allowed at the end of a book.

22.2 Chapter optimization

A chapter that ends with only a few lines of text looks like a mistake, and wastes paper (or electrons!) Generally a page should contain at least five lines of text.

A. Baseline Grids

A baseline grid is a series of evenly-spaced horizontal alignment lines. This is used to provide a vertical rhythm for a design, to align adjacent content (text or graphics), and to align baselines on facing pages in printed material.

The grid lines can be spaced at line-height intervals or a factor of line-height.

Content can be aligned to the grid in various ways. Roman body text typically sets the baseline on a grid line. Graphics might have their top, bottom or both set on grid lines, or be centered between grid lines. Text blocks (consider a multi-line heading with line-height at 1.4x grid height) might have their last baseline or first baseline on a grid line, or have the block's combined height centered between grid lines. Centering is much more important in ideographic type systems.

If normal layout would result in a misalignment, content shifts down to the next available grid line.

Sometimes it's necessary to have particular content opt out of aligning to a grid.

There can be one or more grids per document. Multiple grids can overlap (body grid and side content grid) or run in series (a vertical stack of pages). Grids can be nested (think of a document being represented as a graphic inside another document). A particular piece of content only aligns to a single grid.

B. Of Leading and Sinkage: The Language of Print

Translating print designs to the open web platform can be tricky.

Leading
Line-height
Recto
Right-hand page of a spread
Verso
Left-hand page of a spread

C. The Classical Rules of Hyphenation and Pagination

  1. At hyphenated line-ends, leave at least two characters behind, and take at least three forward.
  2. Avoid leaving the stub-end of a hyphenated word, or any word shorter than four letters, as the last line of a paragraph.
  3. Avoid more than three consecutive hyphenated lines.
  4. Hyphenate proper names only as a last resort unless they occur with the frequency of common nouns.
  5. Hyphenate according to the conventions of the language.
  6. Link short numerical and mathematical expressions with hard spaces.
  7. Avoid beginning more than two consecutive lines with the same word.
  8. Never begin a page with the last line of a multi-line paragraph.
  9. Balance facing pages by moving single lines.
  10. Avoid hyphenated breaks where the text is interrupted.
  11. Abandon any and all rules of hyphenation and pagination that fail to serve the needs of the text.

D. Further Reading

Bringhurst, Robert. The Elements of Typographic Style

Felici, Jim. The Complete Manual of Typography

Haralambous, Yannis. Fonts & Encodings: From Advanced Typography to Unicode and Everything in Between

Haslam, Andrew. Book Design

Highsmith, Cyrus. Inside Paragraphs

Kane, John. A Type Primer

Knuth, Donald. Digital Typography

Lawson, Alexander. Anatomy of a Typeface

Mitchell; Wightman. Book Typography

Nickel, Kristina. Ready to Print

Steer, Vincent. Printing Design and Layout (1948)

Tracy, Walter. Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design

Tschichold, Jan. The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design

E. Acknowledgments

Eric Aubourg, Luc Audrain, Bert Bos, Tom Byrer, James Clark, Brady Duga, Ivan Herman, Tony Graham, Bill Kasdorf, Jean Kaplansky, Liam Quin, Alan Stearns, Tzviya Siegman

G. References

G.1 Normative references

[RFC2119]
S. Bradner. Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate Requirement Levels. March 1997. Internet RFC 2119. URL: http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2119.txt

G.2 Informative references

[JLREQ]
Yasuhiro Anan; Hiroyuki Chiba; Junzaburo Edamoto; Richard Ishida; Tatsuo KOBAYASHI; Toshi Kobayashi; Kenzou Onozawa; Felix Sasaki; Seiichi Kato; Hajime Shiozawa et al. Requirements for Japanese Text Layout. 3 April 2012. W3C Note. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/jlreq/
[css3-break]
Rossen Atanassov; Elika Etemad. CSS Fragmentation Module Level 3. 16 January 2014. W3C Working Draft. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-break/
[css3-gcpm]
Håkon Wium Lie. CSS Generated Content for Paged Media Module. 29 November 2011. W3C Working Draft. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-gcpm/
[css3-grid]
Alex Mogilevsky; Markus Mielke. CSS Grid Positioning Module Level 3. 5 September 2007. W3C Working Draft. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-grid
[css3-layout]
Bert Bos; César Acebal. CSS Template Layout Module. 29 November 2011. W3C Working Draft. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-layout/
[css3-page]
Melinda Grant; Elika Etemad; Håkon Wium Lie; Simon Sapin. CSS Paged Media Module Level 3. 14 March 2013. W3C Working Draft. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-page/
[css3-regions]
Vincent Hardy; Rossen Atanassov; Alan Stearns. CSS Regions Module Level 1. 28 May 2013. W3C Working Draft. URL: http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-regions/