W3C I18N Techniques: Authoring (X)HTML & CSS

Background information

• Character encodings for beginners

  What is a character encoding, and why should I care? W3C article.

• Introducing character sets and encodings

  W3C Getting Started article.

• Essential definitions

  Unicode, character sets, coded character sets, character encodings, the document character set, and character escapes. Part of a W3C tutorial.

• Character encodings

  Brief overview of encoding declarations. W3C article.

• Quick tips: Encoding

  W3C article.

• Quick tips: Escapes

  W3C article.

Best practices

• Choose UTF-8 or another Unicode encoding for all content.

• If you don't use a Unicode encoding, select an encoding that best supports the languages / characters to be included in the page text.

• Check that user agents (all agents that must render the page) adequately support the page encoding that you have selected. If not, you might need to use a more widely supported encoding to achieve an adequate degree of user agent support.

• Use character sets and encodings that will be accessible and common to your users.

How to's

• Choosing a page encoding

  W3C best practices document (Characters and Encodings).

• Choosing an encoding

  In W3C tutorial, Character sets & encodings in XHTML, HTML and CSS.

• Migrating to Unicode

  Guidelines for the migration of software and data to Unicode. W3C article.

• Display problems caused by the UTF-8 BOM

  When using UTF-8 encoded pages in some user agents, I get an extra line or unwanted characters at the top of my web page or included file. How do I remove them? W3C article.

• Setting encoding in web authoring applications

  How do I set character encoding in my web authoring application? W3C article.

Background reading

• Document character set

  What is the 'Document Character Set' for XML and HTML, and how does it relate to the encodings I use for my documents? W3C article.

Other references

• Who uses Unicode?

  Are corporate Web sites using Unicode right now? W3C article.

How to's

• Declaring the document encoding

  In W3C tutorial, Character sets & encodings in XHTML, HTML and CSS.

Background reading

• Serving XHTML 1.0

  The influence of standards- vs. quirks-mode on character encoding declarations. W3C article.

How to's

• CSS character encoding declarations

  W3C FAQ-based article.

• CSS style sheets

  In W3C tutorial, Character sets & encodings in XHTML, HTML and CSS.

How to's

• Declaring the document encoding

  In W3C tutorial, Character sets & encodings in XHTML, HTML and CSS.

• Setting the HTTP charset parameter

  Notes on the charset HTTP header, server setup, and how to generate headers using scripts. W3C article.

Background reading

• Serving XHTML 1.0

  The influence of standards- vs. quirks-mode on character encoding declarations. W3C article.

How to's

• Using character entities and NCRs

  What are character entity and NCR escapes, and when should I use them? W3C article.

How to's

• Changing an (X)HTML page encoding to UTF-8

  How do I change the encoding of my (X)HTML pages to UTF-8? W3C FAQ-based article.

• How do I set character encoding in my web authoring application?

  How do I change the encoding of my (X)HTML pages to UTF-8? W3C FAQ-based article.

• Display problems caused by the UTF-8 BOM

  When using UTF-8 encoded pages in some user agents, I get an extra line or unwanted characters at the top of my web page or included file. How do I remove them? W3C article.

• Setting encoding in web authoring applications

  How do I set character encoding in my web authoring application? W3C article.

Background reading

• Document character set

  What is the 'Document Character Set' for XML and HTML, and how does it relate to the encodings I use for my documents? W3C article.

How to's

• Checking HTTP Headers

  How can I check the character encoding information sent in the HTTP header of a web document? W3C article.

• Checking the character encoding using the validator

  How can I check that the character encoding of my document is correct using the W3C HTML Validator? W3C article.

Links

• Rex Swain's HTTP Viewer

  External link .

• Delorie HTTP Header Viewer

  External link .

• Mozilla Web-sniffer

  External link .

Background reading

• An Introduction to Multilingual Web Addresses

  How IDN and IRIs work, aimed at content authors and general users who want to understand the basics without too many gory technical details. W3C article.

Background information

• Language on the Web

  W3C Getting Started article.

• Declaring Language in XHTML and HTML

  W3C tutorial.

• Language tags in HTML and XML

  How to choose the right attribute values. W3C article.

• Quick tip: Language

  W3C article.

• Why use the language attribute?

  Why use the language attribute? W3C article.

Best practices

• Always declare the default language for text in the page using attributes on the html tag, unless the document contains content aimed at speakers of more than one language.

• Where a document contains content aimed at speakers of more than one language, decide whether you want to declare one language in the html tag, or leave the languages undefined until later.

• Where a document contains content aimed at speakers of more than one language, try to divide the document linguistically at the highest possible level, and declare the appropriate language for each of those divisions.

• Use the lang and/or xml:lang attributes around text to indicate any changes in language.

• For HTML use the lang attribute only, for XHTML 1.0 served as text/html use the lang and xml:lang attributes, and for XHTML served as XML use the xml:lang attribute only.

• Use language attributes rather than HTTP or meta elements to declare the default language for text processing.

• Do not declare the default language of a document in the body element, use the html element.

• If the text in attribute values and element content is in different languages, consider using a nested approach.

How to's

• Declaring Language in XHTML and HTML

  W3C tutorial.

• Using attributes to declare language

  In W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

• Declaring metadata about the language of the intended audience

  In W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

Background reading

• Why use the language attribute?

  Why use the language attribute? A number of useful reasons.

Other references

• Specifying the language of content: the lang attribute

  lang attribute definition in HTML 4.01 (in HTML 4.01 spec, section 8.1)

• Language Identification

  xml:lang attribute definition in XML 1.0. (in XML 1.0 spec, section 2.12)

• Clarify natural language usage

  Express natural language in a document. (in Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, Guideline 4)

• Identifying changes in language

  Use lang attribute when language changes in a document (in Web Content Accessibility Techniques for HTML, section 2.1)

• Identifying the primary language

  Use lang attribute on html tag (in Web Content Accessibility Techniques for HTML, section 2.2)

• The lang and xml:lang Attributes

  xml:lang and lang attribute definitions in XHTML 1.0 (section C.7)

• Content-Language

  Content-Language definition in HTTP 1.1 (section 14.12)

• Specifying the language of content: the lang attribute

  HTML on Content-Language, only says that the HTML language attribute has a higher precedence (in HTML 4.01 spec, section 8.1)

Tests

• Automatic font assignment for CJK text

  W3C test page

• Automatic font assignment for CJK text

  W3C test results

• Language declarations

  W3C test page

• Document-level language declaration

  W3C test results

Best practices

• Consider using a Content-Language declaration in the HTTP header or a meta tag to declare metadata about the language(s) of the intended audience of a document.

• Where a document contains content aimed at speakers of more than one language, use Content-Language with a comma-separated list of language tags.

How to's

• Declaring Language in XHTML and HTML

  W3C tutorial.

• Declaring metadata about the language of the intended audience

  In W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

Background reading

• Using HTTP and meta for language information

  Should I declare the language of my XHTML document using a language attribute, the Content-Language HTTP header, or a Content-Language meta element? W3C article.

Other references

• Content-Language

  Content-Language in the HTTP1.1 specification (section 14.12)

• Specifying the language of content: the lang attribute

  Content-Language in the HTML specification: only says that the html language attribute has a higher precedence (section 8.1)

Best practices

• Decide whether you want to declare one language in the html tag, or leave the languages undefined until later.

• Try to divide the document linguistically at the highest possible level, and declare the appropriate language for each of those divisions.

• Use Content-Language with a comma-separated list of language tags.

How to's

• Mechanisms for declaring language in HTML

  In W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

• Declaring Language in XHTML and HTML

  W3C tutorial.

Background reading

• Why use the language attribute?

  A number of useful reasons. W3C article.

• Using HTTP and meta for language information

  Should I declare the language of my XHTML document using a language attribute, the Content-Language HTTP header, or a Content-Language meta element? W3C article.

Other references

• Content-Language

  Content-Language in the HTTP1.1 specification (section 14.12)

Best practices

• Follow the guidelines in the IETF's BCP 47 for language attribute values.

• Use the shortest possible language tag values.

• Where possible, use the codes zh-Hans and zh-Hant to refer to Simplified and Traditional Chinese, respectively.

• Use the subtag zxx when the text is known to be not in any language.

• If the XML format you are using supports it, use xml:lang="", otherwise use xml:lang="und" when the language is undetermined and you have to label it.

How to's

• How to choose language values

  W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

• Language tags in HTML and XML

  How to choose the right attribute values. W3C article.

• Specifying language tag values

  W3C tutorial (Declaring Language in XHTML and HTML)

• Tagging text with no language

  How do I use language markup in HTML or XML content when I don't know the language, or the content is non-linguistic? W3C article.

• Two-letter or three-letter language codes

  Should I use two-letter or three-letter ISO language codes in language tags? W3C article.

Particularly useful links

• Language Subtag Registry

  IANA's language tag registry.

• Language Subtag Registry lookup tool

  User friendly interface to IANA's language tag registry by Richard Ishida.

• Internet-Draft: BCP 47

  Points to a document containing both RFC 4646 (Tags for the Identification of Languages) and RFC 4647 (Matching Language Tags)

• RFC 4646 Tags for the Identification of Languages

  The specification.

• RFC 4647 Matching of Language Tags

  The specification.

Other references

• Specifying the language of content: the lang attribute

  lang in the HTML 4.01 spec (section 8.1)

• Language Identification

  xml:lang in the XML spec (section 2.12)

• RFC 3066 Tags for the Identification of Languages

  The previous IETF document that used to define how to use language tags to identify languages, now obsolete.

• Understanding the New Language Tags

  Overview of RFC3066bis by one of its authors. W3C article (now historic).

• ISO 3166: Codes for Country Names

  ISO country codes

• ISO 639: Codes for the Representation of Names of Languages

  ISO language codes

Test data

• Automatic font assignment for CJK text

  W3C test page

• Automatic font assignment for CJK text

  W3C test results

Best practices

• Use the lang and/or xml:lang attributes around text to indicate any changes in language.

• For HTML use the lang attribute only, for XHTML 1.0 served as text/html use the lang and xml:lang attributes, and for XHTML served as XML use the xml:lang attribute only.

How to's

• Using attributes to declare language

  In W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

• Declaring Language in XHTML and HTML

  W3C tutorial.

• Declaring metadata about the language of the intended audience

  In W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML and HTML Content)

Background reading

• Why use the language attribute?

  Why use the language attribute? A number of useful reasons.

Other references

• Specifying the language of content: the lang attribute

  lang attribute definition in HTML 4.01 (in HTML 4.01 spec, section 8.1)

• Language Identification

  xml:lang attribute definition in XML 1.0. (in XML 1.0 spec, section 2.12)

• Clarify natural language usage

  Express natural language in a document. (in Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, Guideline 4)

• Identifying changes in language

  Use lang attribute when language changes in a document (in Web Content Accessibility Techniques for HTML, section 2.1)

• The lang and xml:lang Attributes

  xml:lang and lang attribute definitions in XHTML 1.0 (section C.7)

Best practices

• When pointing to a resource in another language, consider the pros and cons of indicating the language of the target document.

• If you want to indicate that the target document of an a element is in another language, consider the pros and cons of using hreflang with CSS.

• Do not use flag icons to indicate languages.

How to's

• How to indicate the language of a link destination

  W3C best practices document (Specifying Language in XHTML & HTML Content)

• The :before and :after pseudo-elements

  :before and :after in the CSS 2.1 spec (section 12.1)

Other references

• The A element

  hreflang in the HTML spec (section 12.2)

Test data

• Hreflang content generation

  W3C test page

• Hreflang content generation

  W3C test results

How to's

• Accept-Language used for locale setting

  Is it a good idea to use the HTTP Accept-Language header to determine the locale of the user? W3C article.

• Date formats

  How do I prepare my web pages to display varying international date formats? W3C article.

Background information

• Quick tips: Presentation vs. content

  W3C article.

• Quick tips: Text authoring

  W3C article.

Best practises

• Use a topic-comment approach whenever possible.

• Avoid sentence-like arrangements when they contain substrings that are predefined translatable text or numeric text.

• Use sentence-like arrangements with care if you have non-numeric and non-translatable text substrings (ie. text created at runtime).

• Where the parts of a composite message appear in separate locations, provide the translator with contextual information to show how the various parts of a composite message relate to each other.

• Provide information to the translator, where needed, to clarify what a substring represents.

• When requested by the localization group, be prepared to provide information about the size of each substring.

• Strings should be reused where text is always used in exactly the same context, or where the string is a self-contained, independent sentence or phrase.

• Reused strings must not refer to more than one text, graphic or conceptual context.

• If in doubt as to whether a string is a good candidate for re-use, don't.

• If re-used strings will be displayed in fixed-sized displayers of varying sizes, ensure that the translation will all fit in the smallest sized display box.

How to's

• Working with Composite Messages

  W3C article.

• Re-using Strings in Scripted Content

  W3C article.

Non-W3C references

• <Insert Title Here> (or, Variables in Interface Language)

  Article by Chris Noessel illustrating a number of examples where composite messages can cause problems.

• Text Fragmentation and Reuse in User Interfaces

  Composite messages and text-reuse in software user interfaces. The basis for articles in this section. (Multilingual Computing article)

• Globalization Step-by-Step, String Handling

  Microsoft-specific article on handling composite messages in Win32 and .NET (Microsoft article)

How to's

• Ruby markup

  Overview of the Ruby Annotation specification (in W3C tutorial, Ruby Markup and Styling)

Background reading

• Ruby

  What is 'ruby'? (W3C article)

• CJKV Information Processing

  Useful information about ruby in general (Ken Lunde's book, CJKV Information Processing, ISBN 1-56592-224-7, especially chapters 6 and 7)

Other references

• Ruby Annotation Recommendation

  W3C Recommendation

• CSS3 Ruby Module

  W3C Working Draft

• The XHTML 1.1 Document Type

  Ruby Annotation in XHTML 1.1 spec (section 3, bottom of the page)

• Implementing the Ruby Module

  Sample module implementations of the Ruby Annotation Specification in several schemas (W3C Personal Note)

Test data

• Ruby markup

  W3C test pages

• Implementing ruby

  Description of support for ruby markup and styling in browsers (in W3C tutorial, Ruby Markup and Styling)

How to's

• HTML, XHTML, XML and Control Codes

  How do I handle control codes (ie. the 'C0' U+0000-U+001F and 'C1' U+007F-U+009F ranges) in XML, XHTML and HTML? W3C article.

How to's

• Missing characters and glyphs

  What to do if a Unicode character or font glyph is missing. W3C article.

Best practices

• Whenever possible, avoid HTML attributes with values of right and left. Use CSS in a linked style sheet instead.

• Only use text-align where you have a good reason.

Background information

• What you need to know about the bidi algorithm and inline markup

  W3C article.

• Quick tips: Right-to-left text

  W3C article.

Best practices

• Whenever possible, avoid HTML attributes with values of right and left. Use CSS in a linked style sheet instead.

• Only use text-align where you specifically want to override the current default alignment.

How to's

• Authoring with localization in mind

  In Authoring HTML: Handling Right-to-left Scripts.

Best practices

• Only use bidi markup to set the base direction for the document as a whole, or where you need to change the base direction.

• Add dir="rtl" to the html tag any time the overall document direction is right-to-left.

• Do not add dir="rtl" to the body tag.

• If you need to avoid the scroll bar moving on some browsers, put dir on the head element and a div just inside the body element.

• Use logical order, not visual ordering for Hebrew, and choose an appropriate encoding.

• If you have to use an ISO encoding for a Hebrew page, declare the encoding as ISO-8859-8-i rather than ISO-8859-8.

• Do not use CSS styling to control directionality in HTML. Use markup.

How to's

• Setting document direction

  In tutorial, Creating HTML Pages in Arabic, Hebrew & Other Right-to-Left Scripts.

• Setting up a right-to-left page

  In techniques document, Authoring HTML: Handling Right-to-left Scripts

• Unicode controls vs. markup for bidi support

  To correctly format bidi text in (X)HTML or XML content, should I use Unicode control codes or markup? FAQ-based article.

• CSS vs. markup for bidi support

  Should I use CSS or markup to correctly format Unicode-based bidirectional (bidi) text in HTML and XML-based markup languages? FAQ-based article.

Tests

• Tests: Basic block markup
  Results: Bidi markup in HTML

• Tests: User agent chrome and bidi text
  Results: HTML browser chrome and bidi text

Best practices

• Add the dir attribute to a block element to change base direction. Don't use CSS or Unicode control characters.

• Only use bidi markup to set the base direction for the document as a whole, or where you need to change the base direction.

How to's

• Changing block direction

  How to use the dir attribute. Handling tables. In tutorial, Creating HTML Pages in Arabic, Hebrew & Other Right-to-Left Scripts.

• Changing the directionality of a block element

  In Best Practices for Authoring HTML: Handling Right-to-left Scripts.

• Unicode controls vs. markup for bidi support

  To correctly format bidi text in (X)HTML or XML content, should I use Unicode control codes or markup? FAQ-based article.

• CSS vs. markup for bidi support

  Should I use CSS or markup to correctly format Unicode-based bidirectional (bidi) text in HTML and XML-based markup languages? FAQ-based article.

Tests

• Tests: Basic block markup
  Results: Bidi markup in HTML

Best practices

• When you have bidirectional text nested in inline text of a different direction, and markup can be used, use the dir attribute to make the text display correctly. Otherwise, use RLE/LRE and PDF control characters to create an embedded base direction.

• When weak or neutral characters or objects appear at the wrong side of a directional run, fix it using dir if there is markup already in place, or use an RLM/LRM.

• When adjacent but separate directional runs with the same directionality are rendered in the wrong order, use RLM/LRM.

• Use stateful Unicode control characters for bidirectional control only for attribute text or element text that allows no internal markup.

• Consider using Unicode control characters to set the base direction around bidirectional text that will be displayed as tooltips, page titles, or on JavaScript dialog boxes.

• Do not leave white space at the end of inline elements that mark a directional boundary.

• Only use bidi markup where you need to change the base direction.

How to's

• What you need to know about the bidi algorithm and inline markup

  Article.

• Mixing text direction inline

  In tutorial, Creating HTML Pages in Arabic, Hebrew & Other Right-to-Left Scripts.

• Mixing text direction inline

  In Best Practices for Authoring HTML: Handling Right-to-left Scripts.

• Bidi space loss

  Why does my browser collapse spaces between Latin and Arabic/Hebrew text? W3C article.

• CSS vs. markup for bidi support

  Should I use CSS or markup to correctly format Unicode-based bidirectional (bidi) text in HTML and XML-based markup languages? FAQ-based article.

• Unicode controls vs. markup for bidi support

  To correctly format bidi text in (X)HTML or XML content, should I use Unicode control codes or markup? FAQ-based article.

• Using Unicode controls for bidi text

  If I'm unable to use markup to correctly order bidirectional text, what can I do? FAQ-based article.

Tests

• Tests: Basic inline markup
  Results: Bidi markup in HTML

• Tests: User agent chrome and bidi text
  Results: HTML browser chrome and bidi text

Best practices

• Treat mirrored characters as if any word left in the name meant 'opening', and right meant 'closing'.

How to's

• Mirrored characters

  In tutorial, Creating HTML Pages in Arabic, Hebrew & Other Right-to-Left Scripts.

• Handling parentheses & other mirrored characters

  In Best Practices for Authoring HTML: Handling Right-to-left Scripts.

Best practices

• Use the bdo element to force the directionality of a sequence of inline characters.

How to's

• Overriding the bidi algorithm

  In tutorial, Creating HTML Pages in Arabic, Hebrew & Other Right-to-Left Scripts.

• Overriding the Unicode bidirectional algorithm

  In Best Practices for Authoring HTML: Handling Right-to-left Scripts.

• Overriding the algorithm

  In What you need to know about the bidi algorithm and inline markup.

Tests

• Tests: Basic inline markup
  Results: Bidi markup in HTML

Background information

• Quick tips: Presentation vs. content

  W3C article.

Best practices

• Ensure that your graphic backgrounds can automatically expand with the text they are related to, avoid highly constrained spaces, and anticipate that the box containing your text may grow during translation.

How to's

• Background images that support localization

  How can I ensure that when text expands in translation the background images will still work? W3C article.

• Sliding Doors of CSS

  How can I ensure that when text expands in translation the background images will still work? W3C article.

Background reading

• Text size in translation

  Overview of text expansion issues. W3C article.

• Display capabilities

  Do I need to worry because display capabilities (screen sizes, number of colors, etc.) of computers vary in other countries? W3C article.

How to's

• Styling using the lang attribute

  Compares :lang, lang |= and lang= selectors, and assesses current usability (W3C article)

Other references

• The language pseudo-class :lang

  CSS2 Specification (section 5.11.4)

• Attribute selectors

  CSS2 Specification (section 5.8)

• Class selectors

  CSS2 Specification (section 5.8.3)

• ID selectors

  CSS2 Specification (section 5.9)

Test data

• Language dependent styling

  W3C test page

• Language dependent styling

  W3C test results

Other references

• Lists

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

Test data

• List style type

  W3C test pages.

• Test results: list-style-type set to armenian

  W3C test results.

• Test results: list-style-type set to georgian

  W3C test results.

• Test results: list-style-type set to lower-greek

  W3C test results.

• Test results: list-style-type set to armenian

  W3C test results.

Other references

• Text direction

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

Other references

• Line breaking

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

Test data

• Line breaking

  W3C test pages.

• Test results: Line breaking and spaces

  W3C test results.

• Test results: Line breaking, opening & closing punctuation and non-starters

  W3C test results.

Other references

• Line breaking

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

• Text spacing

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

Test data

• Line breaking

  W3C test pages.

• Test results: Line breaking and spaces

  W3C test results.

• Test results: Line breaking, opening & closing punctuation and non-starters

  W3C test results.

How to's

• Ruby style

  Introduction to styling ruby with CSS3 Ruby Module. In W3C article, Ruby Markup and Styling.

Background reading

• Ruby

  What is 'ruby'? (W3C article)

• CJKV Information Processing

  Useful information about ruby in general (Ken Lunde's book, CJKV Information Processing, ISBN 1-56592-224-7, especially chapters 6 and 7)

Other references

• Ruby styling

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

• CSS3 Ruby Module

  W3C Working Draft

Other references

• Document grids

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

• Kumimoji and warichu

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

• Emphasis

  Preview of upcoming proposals for CSS3. In W3C article, CSS3 and International Text.

Background information

• Quick tips: Forms

  W3C article.

How to's

• Multilingual forms

  What is the best way to deal with encoding issues in forms that may use multiple languages and scripts? W3C article.

How to's

• Sorting select options

  As part of a form, I have a list of terms in a drop-down box. Why are they not correctly sorted when I translate the items in the list? W3C article.

Background information

• Quick tips: Navigation

  W3C article.

• Monolingual vs. multilingual web sites

  What are the trade-offs between international sites that are monolingual vs. multilingual? W3C article.

• International & multilingual web sites

  What is an "international" or a "multilingual" web site? W3C article.

How to's

• Using <select> to Link to Localized Content

  What are the best practices for using pull-down menus based on the select element to direct visitors to localized content? W3C article.

Background information

• Monolingual vs. multilingual Web sites

  W3C article.

How to's

• When to use language negotiation

  Argues that content negotiation is always a good idea, but that it is not sufficient alone. W3C article.

Background information

• Quick tips: Images, animations & examples

  W3C article.

• Date formats

  How do I prepare my web pages to display varying international date formats? W3C article.

How to's

• Date formats

  How do I prepare my web pages to display varying international date formats? W3C article.

How to's

• Display problems caused by the UTF-8 BOM

  When using UTF-8 encoded pages in some user agents, I get an extra line or unwanted characters at the top of my web page or included file. How do I remove them? W3C article.

How to's

• Setting encoding in web authoring applications

  How do I set character encoding in my web authoring application? W3C article.

How to's

• Setting language preferences in a browser

  How do I check or change the language settings of my browser? W3C article.

How to's

• Bidi space loss

  Why does my browser collapse spaces between Latin and Arabic/Hebrew text? W3C article.

How to's

• Checking HTTP Headers

  How can I check the character encoding information sent in the HTTP header of a web document? W3C article.

• Checking the character encoding using the validator

  How can I check that the character encoding of my document is correct using the W3C HTML Validator? W3C article.

Links

• Rex Swain's HTTP Viewer

  External link .

• Delorie HTTP Header Viewer

  External link .

• Mozilla Web-sniffer

  External link .